The Phase Rule and Its Applications. Alexander Findlay
Читать онлайн.| Название | The Phase Rule and Its Applications |
|---|---|
| Автор произведения | Alexander Findlay |
| Жанр | Математика |
| Серия | |
| Издательство | Математика |
| Год выпуска | 0 |
| isbn | 4057664595713 |
From an examination of Figs. 13 and 14, it will be easy to predict the effect of change of pressure and temperature on the univariant systems S-V or L-V. If the volume is kept constant, addition of heat will cause an increase of pressure, the system S-V moving along the curve AO until at the triple point the liquid phase is formed, and the system L-V moving along the curve OB; so long as two phases are present, the condition of the system must be represented by these two curves. Conversely, withdrawal of heat will cause condensation of vapour, and therefore diminution of pressure; the system will therefore move along the vaporization or sublimation curve to lower temperatures and pressures, so long as the system remains univariant.
If transference of heat to or from the system is prevented, increase of volume (diminution of pressure) will cause the system L-V to pass along the curve BO; liquid will pass into vapour and the temperature will fall.[113] At O solid may appear, and the temperature of the system will then remain constant until the liquid phase has disappeared (p. 57); the system will then follow the curve OA until the solid phase disappears, and we are ultimately left with vapour. On the other hand, diminution of volume (increase of pressure) will cause condensation of vapour, and the system S-V will pass along the curve AO to higher temperatures and pressures; at O the solid will melt, and the system will ultimately pass to the curve OB or to OC (p. 57).
Addition or withdrawal of heat at constant pressure, and increase or diminution of the pressure at constant temperature, will cause the system to pass along lines parallel to the temperature and the pressure axis respectively; the working out of these changes may be left to the reader, guided by what has been said on pp. 60 and 61.
The sublimation curve of all substances, so far as yet found, has its upper limit at the melting point (triple point), although the possibility of the existence of a superheated solid is not excluded. The lower limit is, theoretically at least, at the absolute zero, provided no new phase, e.g. a different crystalline modification, is formed. If the sublimation pressure of a substance is greater than the atmospheric pressure at any temperature below the point of fusion, then the substance will sublime without melting when heated in an open vessel; and fusion will be possible only at a pressure higher than the atmospheric. This is found, for example, in the case of red phosphorus (p. 47). If, however, the sublimation pressure of a substance at its triple point S-L-V is less than one atmosphere, then the substance will melt when heated in an open vessel.
In the case of the vaporization curve, the upper limit lies at the critical point where the liquid ceases to exist;[114] the lower limit is determined by the range of the metastable state of the supercooled liquid.
The interpolation and extrapolation of vapour-pressure curves is rendered very easy by means of a relationship which Ramsay and Young[115] found to exist between the vapour-pressure curves of different substances. It was observed that in the case of closely related substances, the ratio of the absolute temperatures corresponding to equal vapour pressures is constant, i.e. T1/T′1 = T2/T′2. When the two substances are not closely related, it was found that the relationship could be expressed by the equation T1/T′1 = T2/T′2 + c(t′ - t) where c is a constant having a small positive or negative value, and t′ and t are the temperatures at which one of the substances has the two values of the vapour pressure in question. By means of this equation, if the vapour-pressure curve of one substance is known, the vapour-pressure curve of any other substance can be calculated from the values at any two temperatures of the vapour pressure of that substance.
Fusion Curve—Transition Curve.—The fusion curve represents the conditions of equilibrium between the solid and liquid phase; it shows the change of the melting point of a substance with change of pressure.
As shown in Figs. 13 and 14, the fusion curve is inclined either towards the pressure axis or away from it; that is, increase of pressure can either lower or raise the melting point. It is easy to predict in a qualitative manner the different effect of pressure on the melting point in the two cases mentioned, if we consider the matter in the light of the theorem of Le Chatelier (p. 58). Water, on passing into ice, expands; therefore, if the pressure on the system ice—water be increased, a reaction will take place which is accompanied by a diminution in volume, i.e. the ice will melt. Consequently, a lower temperature will be required in order to counteract the effect of increase of pressure; or, in other words, the melting point will be lowered by pressure.[116] In the second case, the passage of the liquid to the solid state is accompanied by a diminution of volume; the effect of increase of pressure will therefore be the reverse of that in the previous case.
If the value of the heat of fusion and the alteration of volume accompanying the change of state are known, it is possible to calculate quantitatively the effect of pressure.[117]
We have already seen (p. 25) that the effect of pressure on the melting point of a substance was predicted as the result of theoretical considerations, and was first proved experimentally in the case of ice. Soon after, Bunsen[118] showed that the melting point of other substances is also affected by pressure; and in more recent years, ample experimental proof of the change of the melting point with the pressure has been obtained. The change of the melting point is, however, small; as a rule, increase of pressure by 1 atm. changes the melting point by about 0.03°, but in the case of water the change is much less (0.0076°), and in the case of camphor much more (0.13°). In other words, if we take the mean case, an increase of pressure of more than 30 atm. is required to produce a change in the melting point of 1°.
Investigations which were made of the influence of pressure on the melting-point, showed that up to pressures of several hundred atmospheres the fusion curve is a straight line.[119] Tammann[120] has, however, found that on increasing the pressure the fusion curve no longer remains straight, but bends towards the pressure axis, so that, on sufficiently increasing the pressure, a maximum temperature might at length be reached. This maximum has, so far, however, not been attained, although the melting point curves of various substances have been studied up to pressures of 4500 atm. This is to be accounted for partly by the fact that the probable maximum temperature in the case of most substances lies at very great pressures, and also by the fact that other solid phases make their appearance, as, for example, in the case of ice (p. 32).
As to the upper limit of the fusion curve, the view has been expressed[121] that just as in the case of liquid and vapour, so also in the case of solid and liquid, there exists a critical point at which the solid and the liquid phase become identical. Experimental evidence, however, does not appear to favour this view.[122]
The transition point, like the melting point, is also influenced by the pressure, and in this case also it is found that pressure may either raise or lower the transition point, so that the transition curve may be inclined either away from or towards the pressure axis. The direction of the transition curve can also be predicted if the change of volume accompanying the passage of one form into the other is known. In the case of sulphur, we saw that the transition point is raised by increase of pressure; in the case of the transition of rhombohedral into α-rhombic form of ammonium nitrate, however, the transition point is lowered by pressure, as shown by the following table.[123]
| Temperature. | Pressure. |
| 85.85° | 1 atm. |
| 84.38° | 100 " |