Optical Engineering Science. Stephen Rolt

separation, the focal length, at 58 m, is long. The focal length of the instrument is fundamental in determining the ‘plate scale’ the separation of imaged objects (stars, galaxies) at the (second) focal plane as a function of their angular separation. As such, a long focal length, of the order of 60 m, may have been a requirement at the outset. At the same time, for practical reasons, a compact design may also have been desired. One may begin to glance, therefore, at the significance, at the very outset of these very basic calculations in the design of complex optical instruments.

      1.6.4 Spreadsheet Analysis

      For the examples previously set out, matrix multiplication is a quick and convenient method for calculating the first order parameters of an optical system. Nonetheless, it must be recognised that as systems become more complex, with more optical surfaces, these calculations can become quite tedious. However, these matrix calculations are easy to embed with spreadsheet tools enabling the automatic computation of all cardinal points. By way of example, the previous calculation is set out and automated using a simple spreadsheet tool.

      In the exercises that follow, the reader may choose to use this method to simplify calculations.

Further Reading

      1 Born, M. and Wolf, E. (1999). Principles of Optics, 7e. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0-521-642221.

      2 Haija, A.I., Numan, M.Z., and Freeman, W.L. (2018). Concise Optics: Concepts, Examples and Problems. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN: 978-1-1381-0702-1.

      3 Hecht, E. (2017). Optics, 5e. Harlow: Pearson Education. ISBN: 978-0-1339-7722-6.

      4 Keating, M.P. (1988). Geometric, Physical, and Visual Optics. Boston: Butterworths. ISBN: 978-0-7506-7262-7.

      5 Kidger, M.J. (2001). Fundamental Optical Design. Bellingham: SPIE. ISBN: 0-81943915-0.

      6 Kloos, G. (2007). Matrix Methods for Optical Layout. Bellingham: SPIE. ISBN: 978-0-8194-6780-5.

      7 Longhurst, R.S. (1973). Geometrical and Physical Optics, 3e. London: Longmans. ISBN: 0-582-44099-8.

      8 Riedl, M.J. (2009). Optical Design: Applying the Fundamentals. Bellingham: SPIE. ISBN: 978-0-8194-7799-6.

      9 Saleh, B.E.A. and Teich, M.C. (2007). Fundamentals of Photonics, 2e. New York: Wiley. ISBN: 978-0-471-35832-9.

      10 Smith, F.G. and Thompson, J.H. (1989). Optics, 2e. New York: Wiley. ISBN: 0-471-91538-1.

      11 Smith, W.J. (2007). Modern Optical Engineering. Bellingham: SPIE. ISBN: 978-0-8194-7096-6.

      12 Walker, B.H. (2009). Optical Engineering Fundamentals, 2e. Bellingham: SPIE. ISBN: 978-0-8194-7540-4.

2 Apertures Stops and Simple Instruments

      2.1 Function of Apertures and Stops

      In the previous chapter, we were introduced to sequential geometric optics. The simple analysis presented there is contingent upon the paraxial approximation. It is assumed that all rays in their sequential progress through the optical system always subtend a negligibly small angle with respect to the optical axis. In this scenario, the effect of all optical elements may be described in terms of a simple set of linear (in ray height and angle) equations leading to perfect image formation. This analysis, as previously outlined, is referred to as Gaussian optics.

      Of course, for real, non-ideal imaging systems, the assumptions underlying the paraxial approximation break down. An inevitable consequence of this is the creation of imperfections or aberrations in the formation of images. A full treatment of these optical aberrations forms the subject of succeeding chapters. In the meantime, consideration of the paraxial approximation might suggest that these imperfections or aberrations would be enhanced for rays that make a large angle with respect to the optical axis. It seems sensible, therefore, to restrict rays emanating from an object to a specific, restricted range of angles. In practice, for most systems, this is done by inserting an opaque obstruction with a circular aperture. This circular aperture is centred on the optical axis and is known as an aperture stop and restricts rays emanating from an object. To further control scattered light, the aperture stop is usually blackened in some manner.

      In addition to selecting rays close to the optical axis and thus reducing imperfections, aperture stops also control and define the amount of light entering an optical system. This will be explored in more detail in the chapters relating to radiometry or the study of the analysis and measurement of optical flux. Naturally, the larger the aperture, then the more light is passed through the system. Most usually, the system aperture is formed by a purpose made mechanical aperture that is distinct from the optical elements themselves. However, on occasion, the system aperture may be formed by the physical boundary of an optical component, such as a lens or a mirror. This is true, for example, for a reflecting or refracting telescope, where the boundary of the first, or primary mirror, forms the aperture stop.

2.2 Aperture Stops, Chief, and Marginal Rays

This principle is illustrated in Figure 2.1 which shows an object together with a corresponding aperture stop. Note that the centre of the aperture stop corresponds to the intersection of its plane with the optical axis.

The aperture stop plays an important role in image formation and the analysis of optical systems. There are a number of important definitions relating to the aperture stop and its location. Of key significance is the chief ray which is a ray that that emanates from the object and intersects the plane of the aperture stop at its centre located at the optical axis. The angle, θ, that this ray makes with respect to the optical axis is known as the field angle. Another ray of critical importance is the marginal ray that emanates from the point where the object plane intersects the optic axis and strikes the edge of the aperture. The angle, Δ, the marginal ray makes with the axis effectively defines the size of the half angle of the cone of light emerging from a single on-axis point at the object plane and admitted by the aperture stop. The size of the aperture stop may be described either by its physical size or by the angle subtended. In the latter case, one of the most common ways of describing the aperture of an optical system is in terms of the numerical aperture (NA). The numerical aperture, is the product of the local refractive index, n, and the sine of the marginal ray angle, Δ.

Figure 2.1 Aperture stop.

      (2.1)

      A system with a large numerical aperture, allows more light to be collected. Such a system, with a high numerical aperture is said to be ‘fast’. This terminology has its origins in photography, where the efficient collection of light using wide apertures enabled the use of short exposure times. An alternative convention exists for describing the relative size of the aperture, namely the f-number. For a lens system, the f-number, N, is given as the ratio of the lens focal length to the aperture diameter:

      (2.2)

      This f-number is actually written as f/N. That is to say, a lens with a focal ratio of 10 is written as f/10. The f-number has an inverse relationship to the numerical aperture and is based on the stop diameter rather than its radius. For small angles, where sinΔ =