A Summing Up. Robert Eaker

and because it is so personal, meaningful change is more likely to take place in a climate of support and mutual trust. Building mutual support is the result of behavioral interactions, over time, between the supervisor and the teacher, rather than the supervisor merely verbalizing the need for trust. Trust is the result of people behaving in ways that are trustworthy. Primarily, this involves a consistency between what supervisors and teachers say and what they do.

       Assumption Four

      The improvement of instruction is the primary goal of supervision. The clinical supervision process is designed for the purpose of assisting teachers in the improvement of their instructional practices, not for the purpose of evaluating teachers. Any use of the clinical approach for evaluation is clearly secondary to the primary goal of improving classroom instruction.

The Clinical Supervision Process

      The clinical supervision process described in Classroom Supervision and Instructional Improvement (Bellon et al., 1976) is built around four distinct but interconnected phases (figure 1.1, page 24). The process is also prescriptive in that within each phase are specific interactive steps that must be completed by the supervisor (observer) and the teacher.

       Phase 1: Pre-Observation Conference

      It is important for both the supervisor (or anyone who is conducting the observation) and the teacher to understand the context of the lesson that is to be observed and the role of the supervisor in the process. It is also important to recognize that this conference is an interactive dialogue between the supervisor and the teacher rather than a one-way conversation that is dominated by the supervisor. The role of the supervisor is to guide the conversation, ensuring that each of the following steps is performed.

      1. Discuss the class setting: Teaching is contextual. Rarely is a lesson taught in isolation. This general introductory step provides an opportunity for the teacher to share with the supervisor how this lesson fits into a larger unit, including what has previously occurred and what is expected to follow. The teacher can also share any unique aspects of the lesson, the class, or specific students. Last, the supervisor and the teacher agree on the date and time that the observation will take place.

      Source: Bellon et al., 1976.

      FIGURE 1.1: Schematic representation of the supervisory process.

      2. Clarify the objectives: What are the students expected to learn as a result of the lesson? During this conversation, the supervisor may need to help the teacher sharpen the objectives by making sure they are ultimately stated in learner outcomes—either content or process objectives.

      3. Discuss learner characteristics and evaluation: This discussion extends the earlier conversation about the context of the lesson by focusing specifically on the readiness of the learners, as well as how the teacher will evaluate whether the students have attained the lesson objectives. In short, this discussion sharpens both the supervisor’s and the teacher’s understanding of the teacher’s pre- and post-assessment processes.

      4. Identify strategies and materials to be used: In this step, the teacher shares with the supervisor the teaching strategies that he or she will use during the lesson, in essence describing what will occur throughout the lesson, as well as any materials or technology that will be used.

      5. Establish the supervisory role: Once the supervisor has a clear understanding of both the teacher’s objectives and what will be occurring during the lesson, the supervisor and the teacher should agree on a focus of the observation that will be the most helpful to the teacher.

      During my years of consulting, writing, and presenting on the clinical supervision process, one of the most frequently asked questions has been, “Are you getting an accurate view of a teacher’s classroom if the teacher knows ahead of time he or she is going to be observed? Wouldn’t it be more helpful for the observation to be unannounced?” I always thought this question revealed a certain underlying philosophy and assumption about the purpose of supervision, which I would challenge by asking, “Do you want to observe teachers at their very best or to catch them at their worst?”

      If a formal observation is unannounced, the teacher has a ready-made excuse if things do not go well. The teacher can point out it was “just one of those days,” or say, “This is not the way my classes typically go.” On the other hand, if the teacher knows ahead of time he or she will be observed, there is little reason not to expect the teacher’s best performance. I must also note that very few administrators think it would be a good idea for school board members to drop in unannounced for the purpose of conducting a formal observation of their own work!

      Certainly, principals and assistant principals need to be aware of what is occurring throughout the school and particularly in classrooms. But there is a difference between conducting a formal observation and simply dropping in on a classroom for a few minutes, or talking with students about their experiences, or meeting with a grade-level or content team. The Bellon approach to the clinical observation process emphasizes that trust is established by agreeing on a time for the observation and creating the conditions for seeing teachers at their best.

       Phase 2: Classroom Observation

      During the classroom observation phase, the supervisor observes and records the behavior of the teacher and students. The supervisor does not attempt to make general observational notes but rather focuses on the specific aspect of the lesson that was designated as being the most important during the pre-observation conference. Importantly, the supervisor only records what is occurring during the lessons, not his or her feelings or opinions about the observation. The description should be as objective as possible.

      The supervisor may choose to focus on what the teacher or the students are saying or on what they are doing. In many observations, the supervisor will choose to focus on a combination of both verbal and physical behaviors as activities within the lesson change.

      The supervisor’s notes might take the form of a script of what the teacher says or what students are saying. For example, if the teacher’s objective is for the students to gain a clear understanding of a particular concept, the supervisor might choose to record, as verbatim as possible, what the teacher says as he or she explains the concept. Alternatively, the supervisor and teacher might have agreed to record students’ questions after the concept is explained.

      In some cases, the supervisor might record the physical movements of the teacher. Such diagrams can be particularly insightful in laboratory classes or physical education classes. Perhaps the focus might be diagramming where students are during an activity.

      Regardless of the focus of the observation, the supervisor must observe two parameters. One, he or she must become skilled at recording classroom behaviors, and two, value judgments must not be part of the record.

       Phase 3: Post-Observation Conference

      The post-observation conference should be conducted as soon as possible after the lesson. During the classroom observation phase, the primary skill required of the supervisor is accurate recording of what the teachers or students are saying and doing, or a combination of both. In the post-observation conference, the primary skill required of the supervisor is interpersonal. An element of trust is essential if the post-observation conference and, by extension, the clinical process are to be productive. This trust must have been developed over time, before the clinical process even began. It cannot be built on the spot during the post-observation conference.

      In this conference, the supervisor and the teacher sit side by side and examine the data the supervisor recorded (typically on a long legal pad). With the data in front of them, the supervisor and the teacher proceed through five distinct steps.

      1. Reconstruct