Raising the Rigor. Eileen Depka

      Source: NAEP, n.d.

      Figure 1.1: NAEP results in mathematics over time.

      Source: NAEP, n.d.

      Figure 1.2: NAEP results in reading over time.

      Reviewing the figures shows us that in mathematics and in reading, in fourth grade and in eighth grade, the average national scale scores are well below the established proficiency level. The dotted lines on each chart indicate the proficiency level for each grade level.

      If NAEP results are an accurate illustration of the performance level of students in the United States, it seems the data strongly suggest that a call to action is in order. With the highest level of performance at 40 percent, the results are not something that we would be proud of in our own classrooms. Growing these scores to reach or at least be near proficiency requires a change. Although making a significant change in these scores may seem like an insurmountable task, change happens one classroom at a time. Tests results like the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) can determine strengths and challenges by subject and country. Fifteen-year-olds take tests in mathematics, science, and reading. In 2012, about 28 million students took the PISA (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, n.d.). Results, at www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm, can be compared. No matter what the assessment, the goal is to learn from the data and act to support student learning.

      Teachers care about their students. They put a lot of effort into planning and presenting lessons designed to help students succeed. What do we do when results reflect that less than half, in most cases only a third, of students are proficient? More important, can the questions we ask in the classroom better prepare students to successfully apply knowledge and skills to tasks on standardized tests?

      In short: yes. Reviewing multiple sample problems from the NAEP shows that students apply their knowledge and skills to questions. If we equip students to respond primarily to questions that require recall or performance of common tasks, we are certainly providing them with important foundational skills. However, if the level of sophistication stops there, students will not acquire the skills necessary to perform at increased levels of success—not only on standardized tests but in real-life experiences.

      My intention is not to highlight increased standardized test performance as our end goal but to concentrate on how the questions teachers use within our classrooms can have a positive impact on student success within and beyond school walls. Standardized tests provide measures of performance and inform schools of their status in comparison to others. However, the purpose of academic measures is to use the information to increase student understanding. Increased understanding will likely result in enhanced performance on standardized tests, but the end goal is to help students achieve higher levels of success. Increased test scores are a byproduct. Interestingly, even though many teachers realize the benefits of infusing higher-order thinking skills into classroom experiences, practices are heavily weighted toward recall questions. Some have noted that since the 1950s, classroom practices associated with questioning types and techniques have changed little (Fisher & Frey, 2007). However, teachers who are trained in ways of creating and implementing a variety of questions are more likely to use them (King, Goodson, & Rohani, n.d.). When the classroom questions asked go beyond recall and provide students with opportunities to think critically, students will have experiences that lead to higher levels of expertise.

Making a Difference With Questioning Strategies

      Questioning methods have been studied for centuries. The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was known for his ability to pose questions in order to generate meaningful discussions.

      More recently, however, John Dewey promoted the importance of deep questioning in his 1910 title, How We Think. Dewey (1910) refers to thinking as a state of doubt leading to investigations that prove or nullify one’s beliefs. In addition, thinking helps us discover the meaning and importance of subject matter. Dewey explains that limiting thought to memorization or recall is contrary to creating an atmosphere where the mind is trained to think and process. He therefore promotes questions that challenge the mind and create situations where thinking occurs at deep and complex levels.

      Within the methods we use to generate the questions we ask, there is room for change, perhaps even growth. If we find ways to increase student engagement, students will learn more and perhaps perform at higher levels. According to Robyn Jackson and Allison Zmuda (2014), students can be compliant without being engaged. Engagement requires that students be involved in complex thinking.

      Many students find straightforward, lower-level questions boring; richer questions are intellectually stimulating, and students find them engaging. Lower-level questions might include specific dates, names, and places. These questions might have value in certain contexts but should go beyond the factual. Richer questions can include those that compare and contrast events or explain why a date is important historically and how the events impacted future events. To support higher-order thinking skills, teachers need to pose questions to students they have not been asked before. Even complex questions can be a recall experience if a student answered previously. When we create an atmosphere in which students experience acceptable challenge, they achieve success. Increasing engagement, interest, and motivation in the classroom—regardless of their current levels—are certainly appealing ventures. Students become motivated to learn because learning matters to them. What we ask and the way we pose questions do impact our students. The way we challenge our students through the questions we ask can create personal meaning and associations with previously learned content—all of which leads to a new level of understanding (Cushman, 2014).

      Consider other reasons to change things up in the classroom by increasing the variety of questions you present. In her Phi Delta Kappan article “Neuroscience Reveals that Boredom Hurts,” Judy Willis (2014) asserts that the student brain wants stimulation and the lack thereof results in boredom, which hinders productivity. Repetitious tasks and simplistic questioning lead to apathy and decreased levels of performance. Student interest is piqued—and a net positive result achieved—when stimulating discussion is inspired by interesting and engaging questions.

      Those questions don’t just benefit students; they benefit teachers as well. But getting to strong questioning strategies takes perseverance. Expect a transitional time. Applying a process to questions will make for purposeful questions. The following sections explain these topics.

Benefitting Both Students and Teachers

      Students are not the only ones who benefit from varied and higher levels of questions. Teachers can focus student thinking on those learning targets that matter most. Responses provide insights into students’ levels of understanding, which then become tools for increasing student awareness (Clough, 2007).

      The processes, activities, and lessons we use to help students discover, evaluate, and apply content give teachers the opportunity to increase students’ ability to analyze and use information. We can design questions to help students think, process, and internalize information. Investigating responses to interesting and engaging questions strengthens knowledge and skills (Walsh & Sattes, 2005).

      Charlotte Danielson (2007) recognizes questioning and discussion techniques as important components of effective teaching. Danielson, a well-established reference for teacher evaluation, asks that questioning techniques specifically enhance student learning. A function of classroom query is to provide the class with multiple opportunities to respond to open-ended questions. Encouraging divergent thinking helps students to make connections and deepen their understanding of a topic.

      Danielson (2007) further supports increasing the ability of students to ask questions. In her vision, students dialogue around meaningful questions while the teacher facilitates the discussion, but students carry the weight of the content and conversation. Students answer questions so teachers can check their understanding,