Motivating & Inspiring Students. Robert J. Marzano

of belonging was also negatively correlated with high school incompletion rates and student involvement with gangs, substance abuse, and delinquency.

Safety

      Safety needs fall into the second-lowest level of the hierarchy. Safety, in this sense, can be defined as a feeling of order, fairness, and predictability that ultimately reduces or eliminates physical or emotional harm. In other words, after individuals’ physiological needs (level 1 of the hierarchy) are met, they will seek out spaces where they feel secure. Teachers should also note the difference between actual and perceived safety. Actual safety relates to the real or genuine danger that individuals might encounter, whereas perceived safety relates to people’s opinions about how safe they are. Regardless of whether students feel or actually are unsafe, the effect is the same: they will endeavor to meet their safety needs by trying to escape or reduce the real or imagined threat rather than focusing on academics (Maslow, 1943, 1954).

      While some people would argue that U.S. schools are becoming less and less safe, research indicates otherwise. Schools are better equipped now than they have ever been to ensure students’ safety. Some have metal detectors at their entrances, and many have school resource officers. The total victimization rate for students between the ages of twelve and eighteen has decreased since 1992, as has the total number of student homicides per year (Robers, Zhang, Morgan, & Musu-Gillette, 2015). Furthermore, from 1995 to 2013, the percentage of students who feared going to school because they felt a threat of attack or harm decreased from 12 percent to 3 percent (Robers et al., 2015). In sum, most schools do a very good job of keeping their students physically safe and contributing to students’ perception of safety. Despite this, there is still work to be done. It is notable that in 2013, 5 percent of students avoided at least one activity or place during school hours because of a perceived threat to their safety (Robers et al., 2015).

Physiology

      The lowest level of Maslow’s hierarchy involves the most basic of human needs related to physiological comfort. When unmet, the ability to focus on any of the higher levels of the hierarchy is inhibited. For example, if an individual is too hungry, thirsty, or tired, he or she must eat, drink, or sleep before focusing on anything else. From an evolutionary perspective, these needs ensure that an environment meets the minimum conditions for survival. Generally, schools do a fairly good job of providing for students’ physiological needs. Cafeterias provide sustenance, and school buildings are heated during the winter and often cooled during warmer months. Many schools have resource officers, administrators, and counselors who actively monitor students to ensure that their physiological needs are met and who work with students, parents, and outside entities when they are not.

      Despite this attention, much of the scope of students’ physiological needs falls outside of the schools’ direct control. For example, in a survey of a thousand U.S. educators, three out of four public school teachers taught students who regularly came to school hungry, and four out of five of those educators identified the problem as recurring on at least a weekly basis (No Kid Hungry, 2015). Katherine M. Keyes, Julie Maslowsky, Ava Hamilton, and John Schulenberg (2015) found that eighth-grade and high school students get less sleep than their counterparts did years ago and that only around 14 percent of adolescents felt they got enough sleep each night. These statistics point to the frequency with which certain physiological needs go unmet among students, which in turn translates into behavioral or learning problems.

Research and Theory in Practice

      The hierarchy of needs and goals presented in this chapter provides a framework K–12 educators can use to create schools and classrooms in which students are motivated and inspired. Chapters 2 through 7 each contain strategies related to a specific level of the hierarchy, with chapter 2 containing strategies related to the highest level of the hierarchy (connection to something greater than self) and chapter 7 containing strategies related to the lowest level (physiology). Each chapter ends with a section containing a summary of its strategies, general recommendations for implementation, and a vignette showing how the recommendations might manifest in a classroom. Teachers can use the strategies and recommendations for all the chapters together to ensure all students are not only engaged and attentive but also motivated and inspired during class. While this book presents a complete model for responding to students’ unmet needs at all levels of the hierarchy, teachers might choose to focus on one level of the hierarchy at a time, especially if they notice that their students need extra support at a particular level. To get a better sense of students’ needs across a school, the appendix (page 158) contains a free reproducible survey that schools can use to determine how effectively they address students’ needs at each level of the hierarchy.

      Connection to something greater than self is the highest level of human needs and goals. While a sustained connection is not easily acquired, teachers can design their classrooms to provide opportunities for students to begin forging such connections. Here, we consider seven topics related to connection to something greater than self: (1) inspirational ideals, (2) altruism, (3) empathy, (4) forgiveness, (5) gratitude, (6) mindfulness, and (7) Rachel’s Challenge.

Inspirational Ideals

      In order to inspire students in the classroom, educators must first address a very basic question: What is inspiration? Inspiration is fairly easy to identify when it is being experienced firsthand. For example, consider an individual reading a story about a woman who overcame poverty, started a multimillion-dollar company, and now donates much of her wealth to benefit underprivileged communities. It is likely that the individual reading this story would be moved or even experience a sense of awe or wonder—clearly, the individual would be inspired. The cause of inspiration, however, may not be so easily articulated. As Todd M. Thrash, Andrew J. Elliot, Laura A. Maruskin, and Scott E. Cassidy (2010) explained:

      Many of the experiences that individuals find most fulfilling—peak experiences … creative insights … spiritual epiphanies … and emotions of awe and elevation …—cannot be controlled or directly acquired, because they involve the transcendence of one’s current desires, values, or expectations. Indeed, life would likely seem bland if one’s strivings were never interrupted and informed by such experiences. We propose that inspiration … is central to each of the above experiences. (p. 488)

      Foundational to Thrash and colleagues’ (2010) description of inspiration is the concept of transcendence— going beyond our current circumstances. Experiencing transcendence, and therefore inspiration, is a function of gaining access to our ideals—the way we would like the world to be. Examples of commonly held ideals include the ability to overcome difficult circumstances, the power of hard work, and the intrinsic goodness of others. These ideals are not always at the forefront of our minds. Rather, they form a subtle network of hopes and dreams. Inspiration occurs when people see evidence that one or more of their ideals could actually be true. For example, the story of the philanthropic entrepreneur might provide evidence for the ideal that great wealth can be used to benefit others or that people can overcome negative circumstances outside their control. A person holding these beliefs would transcend his or her current circumstances by recognizing that one or more of his or her ideals are in operation in the larger world. This is the essence of inspiration. It is also important to note that while some experiences of transcendence or inspiration are momentary, moments of transcendence, however brief, can have long-lasting effects that drive individuals to act on their ideals and make them reality.

      Fostering inspiration in the classroom begins by presenting students with examples of persistence, bravery, altruism, and so on. Teachers can then use these examples to help students become aware of and identify the underlying ideals they represent. Educators can provide examples in a variety of formats