Elements of Grading. Douglas Reeves

number of students who use that feedback to make immediate improvements in their performance.”

      We do not have to agree on standards in order to embrace effective grading practices. The key to applying effective grading practices is not which standards you use but how you apply the standards that you choose to give fair, accurate, specific, and timely feedback to students.

      The next chapter explores what the CCSS mean for grading.

       Chapter 2

      WHAT THE COMMON CORE MEANS FOR GRADING

      For the most part, states have become ambivalent about the Common Core, although initially almost every state embraced this effort, which the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA) and the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) support. At the writing of this book, however, the support has dwindled to about two-thirds of the states, and many state legislative chambers are clamoring for disengagement from the Common Core and the tests associated with it (Bidwell, 2014).

      If you are reading this book in a state where the Common Core is not embraced or supported, you can certainly skip this chapter. But I’d like to suggest that these few pages might be worthwhile reading for any educator, administrator, or policymaker. The reason is that every set of standards—from the fifty separate state standards at the onset of the 21st century to the provincial curricula in Canada to the International Baccalaureate (IB) curricula and virtually any other state of academic expectations—has some elements in common with regard to teaching, learning, and assessing. Most importantly, an effective grading system supports many of these alternative curriculum frameworks. An ineffective grading system, however, undermines even the best academic expectations. Therefore, whether your school is committed to the Common Core State Standards, drifting away from them, or virulently opposed to them, there remains something to learn about the relationship between effective grading practices and the Common Core.

What the Common Core Says—and Doesn’t Say

      The Common Core says what to teach, not how to teach it. In fact, it really doesn’t even do a complete job of saying what to teach because the Common Core is not a curriculum. The learning expectations are clear, and although there are many suggested ideas for classroom teachers, there is no national reading list, no list of writing prompts that every teacher must use, no curriculum that is standardized in every classroom, and certainly no list of effective teaching practices (NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, 2010b). The decisions about how to test, how frequently to test, and which tests to use firmly remain each state’s prerogative. Although many states have made commitments, through the receipt of federal Race to the Top grants, a growing number of states have defied the federal government as it attempts to enforce commitments made when those grants were being pursued.

How the Common Core Influences Teaching

      Although the Common Core does not specify how to teach, the academic expectations within the Common Core certainly should influence many classroom practices. Foremost among these influences is the significant increase in the quantity and quality of classroom writing. In particular, the Common Core shifts the focus of classroom writing from personal narrative and creative writing to descriptive, analytical, and argumentative writing. Certainly there remains space for poetry, creative essays, and personal narratives in the curriculum. But in order to meet the writing requirements of the Common Core, almost every teacher in every discipline needs to make student writing a much greater part of the curriculum.

      Another important influence of the Common Core on teaching practices is the increase in the use of scoring guides, or rubrics, to assess student performance. The documents supporting the Common Core provide many examples of scoring guides (NGA & CSSD, n.d.). Of particular help are student work examples featured on the Common Core website, which correspond to each level of performance. This encourages, but does not require, teachers to incorporate the explicit feedback of scoring guides into their daily practice.

      By using these guides, teachers tend to be more explicit and consistent in their expectations, and students know what they must do in order to improve their performance. Most importantly, teachers’ expectations regarding student performance are linked explicitly to a set of standards and not to individual teachers’ idiosyncratic expectations. This is a good idea for any set of academic expectations, whether they are the Common Core State Standards or an alternative.

How the Common Core Influences Assessment

      The Common Core, like any set of standards, focuses student learning on proficiency as measured against an objective standard. When all students are proficient, then it is possible that all students pass an assessment. When no students are proficient, then it is possible that no students pass an assessment. If the assessment accurately reflects the standards, then the response to low student performance is not to change the test or criticize the standards but simply to get feedback on how each student performed and how he or she can work harder and retake the assessment.

      Schools know how to do this. They don’t widen the goal posts in soccer when too few goals are scored, and they don’t lower the height of the basket when basketball scores are low. Schools know how to get feedback, use it, work hard, and improve performance. The great question as the Common Core proceeds and, understandably, student results are lower than expected (this typically happens when more rigorous standards are implemented and less familiar test items are used), is what the reactions will be from educators, school leaders, policymakers, and parents (Linn, 1998). They might say, “It’s obvious that the assessment is flawed. Our kids can’t be that bad!” Or, they might say, “Since we have agreed to a path of more rigorous standards, it looks as if we have some work to do in order to move student performance to a higher level.” Watch the political rhetoric in the years ahead to see which path your jurisdiction takes.

How the Common Core Influences Grading

      Although the Common Core State Standards do not contain a syllable about grading, the influence of these standards on grading is unmistakable if they are implemented faithfully. It is illogical, for example, to apply the standards and conclude that a student is proficient and then give that student failing marks for reasons not related to the academic standards. The Common Core doesn’t say a word about homework, extra credit, or attendance, all common elements of grading practices that have a major impact on evaluating the success and failure of students. All of these criteria and more remain the exclusive purview of teachers, schools, and systems.

      Although the Common Core influences many matters related to what students should know and be able to do, it is completely silent on one of the greatest influences on student success—feedback and grading. Therefore, whatever standards your school chooses to use, your choice of grading practices remains one of the most important decisions you can make when it comes to improving student achievement.

      Whatever the future of the Common Core, enduring influences on student achievement can be immune from the vagaries of political winds. These include feedback, an exceptionally strong influence on student achievement. The next chapter explores feedback and grading, which are inextricably linked. Parents and students do not ask about the details of standards but rather, “What’s the grade?” If we want a meaningful answer to that question, then we must provide effective feedback throughout the school year.

       Chapter 3

      THE IMPACT OF FEEDBACK ON ACHIEVEMENT

      Although grading policies can be the subject of deeply held opinions, debates about grading are more constructive if we first agree on two important premises. First, we should be willing to agree that grading is a form of feedback. Second, we should be willing to agree that feedback is a very powerful instructional technique—some would say the most powerful—when it comes to influencing student achievement.

Evaluating the Evidence

      Let’s look at the evidence. John Hattie’s (2009) synthesis of more than eight hundred meta-analyses evaluates the relative impact of many factors, including family structure, curriculum, teaching practices, and feedback on student achievement.