Elements of Grading. Douglas Reeves

3

       The Impact of Feedback on Achievement

       Evaluating the Evidence

       The Importance of Feedback

       The Evidence–Decision Gap

       Distinguishing Feedback From Testing

       Reconsidering Feedback

       The Four Elements of Effective Feedback

       Fairness

       Accuracy

       Specificity

       Timeliness

       Chapter 4

       The Grading Debate

       Starting the Debate: Challenges and Responses

       Winning the Grading-Reform Debate

       State What Will Not Change

       Change the Scale to Match the Grades

       Ask for a Fair Warning Agreement From Teachers

       Require Consequences for Missing or Inaccurate Student Work

       Chapter 5

       How to Improve Fairness

       What Fairness Really Means

       Why Fairness Matters

       Why Social Class Matters

       Why Equity Matters

       Chapter 6

       How to Improve Accuracy

       Measuring Accuracy

       Improving Accuracy

       Reality Checks

       Collaborative Scoring

       Unintentional Mathematical Distortions

       Chapter 7

       How to Improve Specificity

       Gauging Knowledge

       Translating Standards Into Grades

       Feedback and Improvement

       Quality, Not Just Quantity

       The Coward’s F

       Listening to Students

       Considering Thinking Processes

       Effectively Modifying Behavior

       Defining Behavior With Clarity

       Using Incentives Correctly

       Encouraging Integrity

       Chapter 8

       How to Improve Timeliness

       Why Timely Feedback Is Important

       Standards of Timeliness

       How Teachers Can Improve Timeliness

       Involve Students in Establishing Academic Criteria

       Use a Three-Column Rubric

       Offer Midcourse Corrections

       How School Administrators Can Improve Timeliness

       Consider Practical Trade-Offs

       Create Time to Analyze and Use Feedback

       Monitor Teacher Responses

       Chapter 9

       Time-Saving Strategies for Busy Teachers

       Finding the Time

       Require That Students Complete the Work

       Use the Menu System

       Documenting Time-Saving Ideas

       Chapter 10

       Student Voices in Grading Practices

       Hypotheses About Student Engagement

       Student Voices Across Grade Levels

       When Students, Parents, and Teachers Disagree

       Chapter 11

       Leading Change for Effective Grading Policies

       Defining the Purposes of Grading

       Giving Rewards and Punishments

       Implementing Unpopular Policy Changes

       Four-Level, Action-Oriented Change Model

       Explicit Vision

       Specification of Behavior

       Assessment and Feedback

       Continuous Refinement

       Aligning Systemic Support

       Examine Evaluation Systems

       Resolve Disagreements

       Chapter 12

       Grading for Students With Special Needs

       Fairness

       Accuracy

       Specificity

       Timeliness