Computing and the National Science Foundation, 1950-2016. William Aspray

A series of reports (e.g., Feldman, Snowbird, Hopcroft-Kennedy, Lax, Bardon-Curtis) shaped NSF’s computing efforts. Among the results were cryptologic research, the Coordinated Experimental Research (CER) program, and the CSNET and NSFET networking initiatives; these are afforded expanded discussion. This growing importance of computer science and of computing, coupled with internal efforts by several NSF staff, led to the founding of CISE.

Chapter 3 covers the years from the founding of CISE in 1986 through 1998. There was a succession of short-term ADs: Gordon Bell, William Wulf, Nico Habermann, Paul Young, and Juris Hartmanis (all served approximately two years each). In spite of some internal pushback, the new Directorate quickly established its structure and importance within both NSF and the federal government. During the 1990s the first easily usable browser (Mosaic), conversion of NSFNET into the Internet, and the emergence of Google were all enabled in some way by CISE support.¹¹ By 1999 CISE started to receive greater funding from Congress, increased respect within NSF, and sustained leadership from its scientific community.

      Chapter 4 covers 1999–2006 when Ruzena Bajcsy and Peter Freeman served as CISE ADs. Major initiatives increased support for cyberinfrastructure, greatly expanded the field with the Information Technology Research (ITR) program, reorganized CISE, started new funding programs in networking research (GENI—the Global Environment for Network Innovations), cybersecurity research (a centers program), and the Broadening Participation in Computing (BPC) program. Direct actions by CISE made significant management changes in the supercomputer centers and strengthened the cyberinfrastructure and basic research programs. Initial plans were laid for later initiatives including the Expeditions in Computing program and Cyber-enabled Discovery and Innovation (CDI).

      Chapter 5 covers 2007–2016. Three individuals served as AD/CISE: Jeannette Wing, Farnam Jahanian, and James Kurose. Budgets were tweaked to ensure that basic computer science research was protected and that CISE received fewer but better proposals. A major one-time appropriation was received and successfully managed as part of President Obama’s stimulus package. Several major programs, such as GENI, Expeditions in Computing, and Cyber-enabled Discovery and Innovation were furthered during this time. The Computing Community Consortium was continued and there was increased partnering with other directorates and industry.

      Chapter 6 provides a detailed analysis of the NSF programs in computer facilities and computer education prior to the founding of CISE in 1986.

      Chapter 7 provides case studies of early NSF support for research in circuits, computer architecture, software, numerical analysis, computer engineering theory, artificial intelligence, and computer graphics.

      Chapter 8 covers the Information Technology Research Program from its beginning in FY (fiscal year) 2000 through to 2005, when it became part of base CISE research funding.

      Chapter 9 provides a case study of NSF’s support of research on concepts and mechanisms of networking, and deployment of operational networks.

      Chapter 10 covers High Performance Computing, an activity NSF has supported even as the power of such machines has grown exponentially.

      Chapter 11 covers CISE’s programs to broaden participation in computing to women, underrepresented minorities, and the disabled.

      Chapter 12 provides a personal view of what a CISE AD does.

      Chapter 13 recaps the narratives in Chapters 1 to 5 and provides a set of high-level conclusions about the history of computing and NSF funding.

      Readers seeking an overview of NSF activities in computing research and education, as well as related activities, are encouraged first to read Chapters 1–5, and then follow up by reading any deeper studies that are of particular interest. The organizational charts in the appendixes may also be useful in understanding one aspect of the changing relationship between NSF and computing.

      Readers with limited time and/or scope of interest may want to read only the chapter(s) in Part II that speak to their interests. A quick scan of the chapters’ beginnings may help to determine whether one of them addresses the reader’s interest.

      Table P.2 may be of use in connecting Part I chapters with Part II chapters. It illustrates the major connections between a given chronological chapter and one or more subject study chapters.

      Work on this project was supported in part by NSF Grant #1743282, EAGER: Exploring the History and Impact of the Computing and Information Science and Engineering (CISE) Directorate of the National Science Foundation, a grant made to the Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center (MGHPCC). We worked independently of the NSF. Any views expressed in this book are solely due to us or named third-party sources, not the NSF nor the MGHPCC. Any errors of fact are our responsiblity.

Table P.2Relation between Part I chapters and Part II chapters

      Work on this project would not have been possible without NSF support and the help of many people. Erwin Gianchandani, currently Deputy AD/CISE, guided us on the usage of NSF materials and other issues. NSF Historian Leo Slater answered questions and Assistant NSF Historian Emily Gibson provided access to some NSF records. Janet Abbate (Virginia Tech), Thomas Haigh (University of WisconsinMilwaukee), and Jeffrey Yost (Charles Babbage Institute) served as our historical advisory committee. We have worked closely with Amanda Wick, the Acting CBI Archivist, on the deposit of project materials at CBI. Several former and current CISE staff have donated material to the project. Over 50 individuals have agreed to sit for oral history interviews. A succession of four people provided diligent support to the project: Jana Vetter, Julia Fan, Jessica Ewen, and Kayla Heslin. In particular, we want to thank Julia and Jessica for their work on the oral histories and Kayla for the work at the end of the project as we compiled this book and readied materials to be sent to the CBI. Finally, we wish to thank our families, who have sometimes missed us and been neglected as we worked on this project. Many thanks to all!

      Notes

1.Before the early 1960s there was no computer science, but by the 1970s the term was widely known and departments of computer science rapidly became a dominant academic unit and scientific discipline. We will use “computer science” primarily to refer to the research discipline and “computing” to refer to the broader activity of using computers and studying that usage.

2.William Aspray, Bernard O. Williams, and Andrew Goldstein, “Computing as Servant and Science: Impact of the National Science Foundation” (unpublished, 510 pages, 1992).