Computing and the National Science Foundation, 1950-2016. William Aspray

Thompson, John Cocke, Ivan Sutherland, Butler Lampson, Dick Sterns, Doug Engelbart, Jim Gray, Alan Kay, Vint Cerf, Bob Kahn, Fran Allen, and Chuck Thacker were primarily in industry or government, while Tony Hoare, Steve Cook, Niklaus Wirth, Robin Milner, Ole Dahl, Kristen Nygaard, Peter Naur, Joseph Sifakis, Silvio Micali, and Tim Berners-Lee carried out their Turing-related research in Europe, Canada, or Israel.

      60.R. K. Yin. 2011. Applications of Case Study Research. Sage Publishers.

      61.D. Leavitt. May 3, 1972. NSF-sponsored research could lead to national science computer network. Computerworld, p. 10.

      62.D. D. Aufenkamp and E. C. Weiss. 1972. NSF activities related to a national science computer network. Computer Communications: Impacts and Implications, p. 226.

      63.M. Greenberger, J. Aronofsky, J. L. McKenney, and W. F. Massy. 1973. Computer and information networks: The movement in research and education toward national resource sharing via networks is accelerating. Science, 182(4107): 29–35. DOI: 10.1126/science.182 .4107.29.

      64.J. Abbate. 2000. Inventing the Internet. MIT Press.

      65.Telenet was developed by Larry Roberts, the original ARPANET program manager.

      66.S. R. Hiltz. June 1981. The Impact of a Computerized Conferencing System on Scientific Research Communities. FINAL REPORT NSF-MCS-77-27813.

      67.M. E. Smid and D. K. Branstad. 1988. Data encryption standard: Past and future. Proceedings of the IEEE, 76(5): 550–559. DOI: 10.1109/5.4441.

      68.W. Diffie and M. E. Hellman. 1977. Special feature exhaustive cryptanalysis of the NBS data encryption standard. Computer, 10(6): 74–84. DOI: 10.1109/C-M.1977.217750.

      69.FIPS Publication 46-3. 1999. Data encryption standard (DES). National Institute of Standards and Technology 25(10): 1–22. https://csrc.nist.gov/csrc/media/publications/fips/46/3/ archive/1999-10-25/documents/fips46-3.pdf.

      70.W. Diffie and M. Hellman. 1976. New directions in cryptography. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 22(6): 644–654. DOI: 10.1109/TIT.1976.1055638.

      71.R. L. Rivest, A. Shamir, and L. Adleman. 1978. A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems. Communications of the ACM, 21(2): 120–126. DOI: 10.1145/ 359340.359342.

      72.J. H. Ellis. 1970. The possibility of secure non-secret digital encryption. UK Communications Electronics Security Group, vol. 6. http://cryptocellar.org/cesg/possnse.pdf.

      73.C. C. Cocks. 1973. “A note on non-secret encryption.” CESG Memo. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-note-on-non-secret-encryption-Cocks/ fab40f7645d931a6094e1d8c0113143091942ad3.

      74.D. Shapley and G. B. Kolata. 1977. Cryptology: Scientists puzzle over threat to open research. Science, 197(4311): 1345–1349. http://science.sciencemag.org/; last accessed 2 March 2018. Also: D. Shapley. 1977. Cryptography meeting goes smoothly. Science, 198(4316): 476. http://science.sciencemag.org/; last accessed 2 March 2018.

      75.J. C. Cherniavsky. 1985. Case study: Openness and secrecy in computer research. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 10(2): 99–103. DOI: 10.1177/016224398501000214.

      76.R. C. Buck. 1982. The public cryptography study group. Computers & Security, 1(3): 249–254. DOI: 10.1016/0167-4048(82)90043-8.

      77.P. J. Denning, D. H. Brandin, D. C. Schwartz, and G. I. Davida. 1981. Report of the public cryptography study group. Communications of the ACM, 24(7): 434–450. DOI: 10.1145/358699 .358710.

      78.Denning et al., 1981, op. cit.

      79.G. B. Kolata. 1980. Cryptography: A new clash between academic freedom and national security. Science, 209(4460): 995–996. DOI: 10.1126/science.209.4460.995.

      80.B. R. Inman. 1980. Cryptography research funding. Science, 210(4466): 134. DOI: 10.1126/ science.210.4466.134.

      81.D. A. Langenberg. 1980. Cryptography, NSF, and NSA. Science Magazine, 210(4473). DOI: 10.1126/science.210.4473.960.

      82.I left NSF in the fall of 1978 and returned to manage a different set of programs in January 1980, so I am not familiar with the process used by the program directors who followed me. I am quite confident that something similar to this process continues today.

      83.Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1982. Scientific Communication and National Security. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. DOI: 10.17226/253.

      84.Minutes of the May 28–29, 1981, meeting of the NSF Advisory Subcommittee on Computer Science. Jack Minker, Chair. Charles Babbage Institute.

      85.J. Guttag et al. May 1981. The Role of the NSF in Supporting Cryptological Research: A Report to the National Science Foundation by Its Mathematical and Computer Sciences Advisory Committee. National Science Foundation. Charles Babbage Institute.

      86.Thelma Estrin was married to Gerald Estrin and both were UCLA computer science professors. They had three daughters. Margo Estrin is a medical doctor. Deborah Estrin is a leading computer scientist, who moved from USC to UCLA after her parents retired. She led the NSF Science and Technology Center for Embedded Networked Sensing (CENS). Recently, she joined Cornell Tech. Judith Estrin is a corporate executive and entrepreneur, having founded Zilog, Bridge Communications, Network Computing Devices, Precept Software, Packet Design, and JLABS. Judy served as chief technology officer and senior vice president of Cisco Systems until 2000 and CEO of Eventlive in 2013.

      87.Ettore F. “Jim” Infante had served as program director for Applied Mathematics in MCS a few years earlier.

      88.K. Curtis. May 21–23, 1979. Summary Minutes, Advisory Subcommittee for Computer Science. National Science Foundation. Charles Babbage Institute.

      89.Curtis, 1979, op. cit. , p. 2.

      90.Curtis, 1979, op. cit. , p. 3.

      91.P. Young. December 9, 1979. “ReDRAFT: NSF support for experimental computer science,” Internal document. Charles Babbage Institute.

      92.Oral history, Rick Adrion, interviewed