Abnormal Psychology. William J. Ray

2009, 2011; Henderson, Vincenzi, Yeung, Fricchione, 2016; Kitayama & Cohen, 2007).

      In terms of assessment and classification of mental disorders, it is critical when working with individuals from different cultures to understand the rules of expression as well as the labeling of mental disorders. This is especially true if the rules for expression of distress and emotion differ greatly from the interviewer’s culture. It is also important to understand what would be considered a mental disorder in another culture. For example, in some cultures such as the Shona of Zimbabwe, there is a disorder referred to as thinking too much (Kufungisisa). Thinking too much is seen to cause anxiety and depression as well as headaches and dizziness. A common theme in Latin America is to speak of nerves (nervios) as a common idiom of psychological distress. People may say that they cannot function because of nerves. In Japan, there is a broad concept of social concern when interacting with others (taijin kyofusho). This can include concern that one is making too much or too little eye contact, has an unpleasant body odor, or is making inappropriate body movements (see Mezzich & Ruiperez, 2015, for an overview). Cultural displays of emotional expression vary. Individuals from different cultures may display their emotions differently even though the underlying experience of the emotion may be similar. Some of the early work on this topic was performed by Paul Ekman and his colleagues (Ekman & Oster, 1979). In these studies, individuals from North America and Asia were shown emotionally arousing films that brought forth feelings of disgust or happiness. Although in private both cultural groups showed similar facial expression, the situation changed drastically when another person was present.

      In that situation, those from Asia showed fewer facial expressions in reaction to the films than when they were alone. Western individuals, on the other hand, showed similar reactions to the films both alone and in the presence of another. Thus, different cultures have different display rules for the expression of similar underlying emotions.

      Neuroscience research has shown that human reactions are also culturally sensitive. We know that the amygdala shows increased activity in response to emotional reactions—especially fear. Native Japanese and Caucasian Americans show greater amygdala responses to fear expressions of those of their own culture. To put it another way, a person shows less response when viewing an emotional expression of someone who is not part of his or her own culture (see Figure 2.21).

      Thought Question: What cultural factors need to be considered in the assessment and classification of mental disorders? How could the failure to notice cultural differences lead to an incorrect assessment?

      Figure 2.21 Cultural Specificity in Bilateral Amygdala Response to Fear Faces

      Source: Chiao (2009).

      neuroethics: a field of ethical inquiry related to the ethical, legal, and social policy implications of neuroscience, which explores questions about who should have access to data and scans of an individual’s internal processes

      Concept Check

       Describe four major types of brain imaging techniques currently being used, and identify a psychological disorder for which each is especially valuable.

       What are some of the trade-offs that researchers and clinicians must consider when choosing a brain imaging technique? What questions help inform their decision?

      Lens

      Neuroethics: Ethical Considerations When Using Neuroscience Techniques

      Safety and ethics are global concerns in the age of neuroscience.

      AP Photo/Susan Walsh

      Through genetics, brain imaging, and other neuroscience procedures, it is now possible to know not only about one’s behaviors but also about one’s internal processes. For example, predictions can be made from genetics about certain types of medical and psychological disorders that are more likely to develop in one’s future. This raises ethical questions concerning who should have access to this information and how it may be used by a society.

      In the first half of the twentieth century, certain Western societies attempted to make changes in future populations. This was referred to as eugenics. The basic idea was that it was possible to improve the human race by discouraging reproduction among those considered to be inferior and encouraging reproduction among those who were considered to be healthy or otherwise preferable. Individuals with mental disorders and mental retardation were among those sterilized. The eugenics movement impacted policies in the United States, Britain, and elsewhere, then reached its extreme in Nazi Germany during World War II.

      Although today eugenics is thought of as a disreputable crusade of the past, ethical issues in terms of one’s own genetic information raise important questions. Should people who want to have children be told about the possible characteristics, including potential disorders such as autism, of their future child? Should an insurance company know whether you might have the potential to experience schizophrenia or depression in your lifetime? Should companies be able to patent human genes that could prevent disease? Should people be told early in their life which disorders they might develop 40 or 50 years in the future? These are just a few of the complex questions to be considered.

      There are also a number of questions related to brain imaging techniques. For example, with millions of MRI scans being performed for research, scientists may discover what are referred to as incidental findings. Should an individual be told that he or she has a non-normal brain if a neurologist does not consider the findings related to the person’s physical health?

      At this point in time, brain imaging techniques cannot absolutely determine if one individual has a mental disorder or not. What neuroscientists can say is that a group of individuals with a particular disorder will show different patterns of brain activity than another group of individuals who do not have the disorder.

      Neuroethics takes us beyond the questions of traditional research ethics and focuses on the ethical, legal, and social policy implications of neuroscience (Illes & Bird, 2006). Because of this, a number of scientific neuroscience groups and governmental agencies have sought to understand the ethical problems that neuroscience will bring our society.

      Thought Question: Neuroethics focuses on the ethical, legal, and social policy implications of neuroscience and asks complex questions. Choose a position on one of the questions presented in this LENS, and present evidence to support your position.

      Networks of the Brain

      Given that the human brain has some 86 billion neurons with some 5,000 synapses, each resulting in trillions of synaptic connections, it is clear that a higher-level analysis of brain function is necessary (Goldstone et al., 2015). A variety of brain imaging techniques have allowed for a network analysis that describes which areas of the brain are involved in specific tasks. The first step has been to describe the normal processing of networks such as those involved in rewards or fear. The next step is to understand how these networks become involved in more psychopathological states such as addiction and anxiety. The goal now is to better understand how the basic network becomes involved in psychopathological processes. Is it a lack of connections between brain areas, or is there a reorganization of normal processes that underlies specific psychopathologies? This is one question scientists are asking.

      Following the discovery of brain areas involved in particular functions such as Broca’s area in the 1800s, researchers searched for specific areas involved in particular cognitive, emotional, and motor processes. With the increased sophistication of brain imaging technologies came a greater ability to view the manner in which certain parts of the brain work together as well as large-scale turning off and turning on of various areas.