American Diabetes Association Complete Guide to Diabetes. American Diabetes Association

the next few chapters, you’ll find out a lot more about the science of diabetes. We’ve come a long way from pouring urine on anthills! One of the most important scientific discoveries in diabetes was glucose. Chapter 2 gets down to the basics of glucose and its role in diabetes.

CHAPTER 2

      Glucose Facts

      • What Is Glucose?

      • How Glucose Works

      • Glucose Tests

      It sounds like a technical term, but glucose is just a fancy name for sugar. Your health care provider tested the glucose in your blood when he or she diagnosed you with diabetes. Perhaps it was the first time you heard the term. In any case, you’ll probably hear it a lot more.

      Glucose is probably the most important term you’ll need to understand for managing your diabetes. In this chapter, we’ll discuss what it is and how it affects your diabetes. We’ll also cover the tests that measure glucose in your blood.

What Is Glucose?

      Glucose is a simple sugar in your blood and your body’s main source of energy. It is called blood glucose or sometimes blood sugar. It comes primarily from carbohydrates in many of the foods that you eat, including sugary treats like cupcakes, starchy things like vegetables, and grains like breakfast cereal.

How Glucose Works

      The purpose of glucose is to provide energy. The key to providing energy is eating food. Yes, food!

      When people eat certain foods, their bodies break them down into simple sugars called glucose. Glucose goes into their bloodstream, where it travels to all of the cells in their body. Cells use this glucose for energy to do all the big and small jobs that keep the body humming. To operate at peak performance, your body needs to keep blood glucose levels within a normal range. If you have too little glucose, you run out of energy; too much, and the extra glucose will be stored and cause weight gain. In people with diabetes, excess glucose stays in the blood and may also damage different parts of the body, such as blood vessels and nerves.

      The optimal, “normal” range of blood glucose is measured using a plasma glucose test. A normal fasting glucose level is 70–99 milligrams per 1 deciliter of blood, which is abbreviated as 70–99 mg/dl. Fasting means that you haven’t eaten for at least eight hours before the test.

      But how does the human body regulate glucose levels? This feat requires a delicate balance of hormones and stored glucose.

      Pancreas

      The pancreas is an organ that does not get much attention—unless it stops doing its job. It is an important player in your digestive system, and it sits right behind your stomach.

      The pancreas secretes many hormones, including two very important hormones for regulating glucose: insulin and glucagon. These hormones are made by cells in the pancreas known as the islets of Langerhans. Within the islets of Langerhans, alpha cells produce glucagon and beta cells produce insulin.

      Islets of Langerhans

      The islets of Langerhans are named for the German physician Paul Langerhans, who first described them in 1869 while still a medical student. He presented a thesis that described these cells as looking different than other cells in the pancreas. However, Langerhans could not determine what these cells did.

      Insulin and Glucagon

      Insulin and glucagon are two important hormones that help keep your blood glucose on target. Insulin helps move glucose (energy) to your cells and glucagon helps raise blood glucose.

      Insulin is the “special key” to make sure glucose effectively gets to cells. Insulin also prevents the liver from making too much glucose when you are not eating. The pancreas needs to produce the right amount of insulin to move glucose from the bloodstream to cells. It releases insulin in response to rising blood glucose levels during snacks and meals. It also releases a small, steady stream of insulin throughout the day. This keeps your liver from making too much glucose between meals or overnight.

      Conversely, the pancreas produces glucagon to raise blood glucose levels between meals or during exercise when your body uses a lot of energy. Glucagon raises blood glucose by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose.

      We’ve only just recently begun to understand the delicate and complicated process of insulin and glucagon secretion. Together, these processes work to maintain a steady level of glucose in the blood all the time. This process is central to understanding how diabetes develops and how to treat it.

      People have known about diabetes since antiquity. Unfortunately, for thousands of years, they didn’t know how it worked or how to treat it. Beginning in the Enlightenment (17th and 18th centuries), this began to change.

      Early Glucose Discoveries

      • In 1776, scientists discovered that glucose was in the blood of both people with and people without diabetes. That led them to suspect that people with diabetes pass glucose from blood into urine. But they didn’t know how.

      • Over one hundred years later, in 1889, two German physiologists, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering, accidently discovered that the pancreas is involved in diabetes. As part of their experiments on how the body uses fat, they removed the pancreas of a laboratory dog. Much to their astonishment, the dog urinated again and again. Luckily, the scientists tested the dog’s urine for glucose. Sure enough, the dog had developed diabetes when its pancreas was removed. This led the scientists to suspect that some substance in the pancreas somehow prevented diabetes.

      • It would take another 30 years for scientists to find this magic pancreatic substance—insulin. This discovery, one of the greatest of modern medical history, is discussed in chapter 13.

      Too Much Glucose

      People with diabetes don’t produce enough or don’t produce any insulin. Or they don’t use insulin effectively. This results in a buildup of too much glucose in their blood.

      In all types of diabetes, glucose does not get into the cells that need it and instead builds up in the bloodstream. In addition, cells don’t have the energy they need to do their work.

      The buildup of glucose in blood can have various effects, depending on its severity. For one thing, the body may try to flush out excess glucose by filtering it through the kidneys and expelling it from the body in urine. Therefore, people with high levels of glucose in their blood may urinate a lot or feel thirsty because of dehydration.

      In other cases, the body may try to “grab” energy from muscle and stored fat cells because it can’t get energy from glucose in the blood. This can cause muscle deterioration and weight loss.

      Symptoms of High Blood Glucose

      People with very high blood glucose levels share many similar symptoms. You may have had some of these symptoms before you were diagnosed with diabetes.

      Some Early Symptoms of Diabetes

      • Extreme thirst

      • A frequent need to urinate

      • Blurred vision

      • A feeling of being tired most of the time for no apparent reason

      However, some people do not have any symptoms of high