Common Objects of the Microscope. John George Wood

more intense and the more distant the better, is required. For most cases, and with powers not higher than one inch, a good paraffin lamp, placed about two feet away from the stage, and on one side of it, so as to be about a foot above the level of the object, will give all that is needed. Such a lamp is shown in Fig. 14. Low magnifications are, as a rule, all that is called for in this method.

      Lieberkuhn’s condensers are useful aids, but are somewhat expensive. They are concave mirrors, which are so adjusted to the objective that the latter and the reflector come into focus together, the light being sent in from below, or from one side.

      One other method of illumination must be mentioned before leaving the topic, and this is the illumination of objects upon a “dark field.” With suitable subjects, and when carefully managed, there is no method which gives more beautiful effects, and it has the great advantage of allowing the object to be brilliantly lighted, without the strain to the eyes which is involved in such lighting by the usual method of direct illumination.

      Fig. 14.

      It consists essentially in allowing the light to fall upon the object from below, at such an angle that none of it can enter the objective directly. Thus the concave mirror, turned as far as possible to one side, and reflecting on to the object the rays from the lamp placed upon the opposite side, will give very fair results with low powers; this plan, however, is capable of but very limited application. Again, a disc of black paper may be stuck on to the middle of the bull’s-eye, and the latter be placed below the stage between it and the mirror. In this case everything depends upon the size of the disc, which, if too small, will not give a black ground, and if too large will cut off all light from the object.

      The best and only really satisfactory plan is to arrange the illumination with the substage condenser, as previously described, and then to place below the lens of the latter a central stop of a suitable size, which can only be determined by trial. When this has been done the object will be seen brilliantly illuminated upon a field of velvety blackness. Such stops are supplied with the condenser.

      We have devoted a considerable portion of space to this question, since it is, of all others, the most important to a successful, satisfactory, and reliable manipulation of the microscope; but even now, only the main points of the subject have been touched upon, and the worker will find it necessary to supplement the information given by actual experiment. A few failures, rightly considered, will afford a great amount of information, but those who desire to go thoroughly into the matter are recommended to consult the present writer’s Guide to the Science of Photomicrography, where it is treated at much greater length, as an essential part of the subject-matter of the book.

      It may be added here, that no method of reproducing the images of objects is on the whole so satisfactory as the photographic one; and whilst a lengthened reference to the topic would be out of place in a work of the character of the present one, the one just mentioned will be found to contain all that is necessary to enable the beginner to produce results which, for faithfulness and beauty, far excel any drawing, whilst they have the additional advantage that they can, if required, be exhibited to hundreds simultaneously.

      CHAPTER IV

      Vegetable Cells and their Structure—Stellate Tissues—Secondary Deposit—Ducts and Vessels—Wood-Cells—Stomata, or Mouths of Plants—The Camera Lucida, and Mode of Using—Spiral and Ringed Vessels—Hairs of Plants—Resins, Scents, and Oils—Bark Cells.

      We will now suppose the young observer to have obtained a microscope and learned the use of its various parts, and will proceed to work with it. As with one or two exceptions, which are only given for the purpose of further illustrating some curious structure, the whole of the objects figured in this work can be obtained without any difficulty, the best plan will be for the reader to procure the plants, insects, etc., from which the objects are taken, and follow the book with the microscope at hand. It is by far the best mode of obtaining a systematic knowledge of the matter, as the quantity of objects which can be placed under a microscope is so vast that, without some guide, the tyro flounders hopelessly in the sea of unknown mysteries, and often becomes so bewildered that he gives up the study in despair of ever gaining any true knowledge of it. I would therefore recommend the reader to work out the subjects which are here mentioned, and then to launch out for himself on the voyage of discovery. I speak from experience, having myself known the difficulties under which a young and inexperienced observer has to labour in so wide a field, without any guide to help him to set about his work in a systematic manner.

      The objects that can be most easily obtained are those of a vegetable nature, as even in London there is not a square, an old wall, a greenhouse, a florist’s window, or even a greengrocer’s shop, that will not afford an exhaustless supply of microscopic employment. Even the humble vegetables that make their daily appearance on the dinner-table are highly interesting; and in a crumb of potato, a morsel of greens, or a fragment of carrot, the enthusiastic observer will find occupation for many hours.

      Following the best examples, we will commence at the beginning, and see how the vegetable structure is built up of tiny particles, technically called “cells.”

      That the various portions of every vegetable should be referred to the simple cell is a matter of some surprise to one who has had no opportunity of examining the vegetable structure, and indeed it does seem more than remarkable that the tough, coarse bark, the hard wood, the soft pith, the green leaves, the delicate flowers, the almost invisible hairs, and the pulpy fruit, should all start from the same point, and owe their origin to the simple vegetable cell. This, however, is the case; and by means of a few objects chosen from different portions of the vegetable kingdom, we shall obtain some definite idea of this curious phenomenon.

      I.

      I.

      On Plate I. Fig. 1, may be seen three cells of a somewhat globular form, taken from the common strawberry. Any one wishing to examine these cells for himself may readily do so by cutting a very thin slice from the fruit, putting it on a slide, covering it with a piece of thin glass (which may be cheaply bought at the optician’s, together with the glass slides on which the objects are laid), and placing it under a power of two hundred diameters. Should the slice be rather too thick, it may be placed in the live-box and well squeezed, when the cells will exhibit their forms very distinctly. In their primary form the cells seem to be spherical; but as in many cases they are pressed together, and in others are formed simply by the process of subdivision, the spherical form is not very often seen. The strawberry, being a soft and pulpy fruit, permits the cells to assume a tolerably regular form, and they consequently are more or less globular.

      Where the cells are of nearly equal size, and are subjected to equal pressure in every direction, they force each other into twelve-sided figures, having the appearance under the microscope of flat six-sided forms. Fig. 8, in the same Plate, taken from the stem of a lily, is a good example of this form of cell, and many others may be found in various familiar objects.

      We must here pause for a moment to define a cell before we proceed further.

      The cell is a close sac or bag formed of a substance called from its function “cellulose,” and containing certain semi-fluid contents as long as it retains its life. In the interior of the cell may generally be found a little dark spot, termed the “núcleus,” and which may be seen in Fig. 1, to which we have already referred. The object of the nucleus is rather a bone of contention among the learned, but the best authorities on this subject consider it to be the vital centre of the cells, to and from which tends the circulation of the protoplasm, and which is intimately connected with the growth and reproduction of the cell. On looking a little more closely at the nucleus, we shall find it marked with several small light spots, which are termed “nucléoli.”

      On the same Plate (Fig.