Step-by-Step Design of Large-Scale Photovoltaic Power Plants. Houshang Karimi

eight chapters. Chapter 1 gives an overview of different applications and categories of solar energy, as well as the projections on the development of PV power plants worldwide. The current PV development shows a promising increase in the energy market investment despite the financial uncertainties during the Covid‐19 pandemic. Chapter 2 presents the design requirements and the major phases in designing a LS‐PVPP. In Chapter 3, feasibility studies are discussed in which the requirements for implementing a PV plant are evaluated from technical, legal, and economic points of view. Technical issues and existing standards related to grid connection points are studied in Chapter 4, where comprehensive technical studies are carried out using advanced simulation software based on the national network codes. Chapter 5 conducts a comprehensive discussion on radiometric terms, arrangement of solar resources, and main parameters of solar energy radiation. A detailed review on engineering documents and their classification for LS‐PVPP projects is presented in Chapter 6. Main components of the DC subsystem and its designing criteria are provided in Chapter 7, and finally Chapter 8 categorizes and explains different sources of power loss in PV power plants. Energy yield prediction and its influencing factors are also discussed in this chapter.

Acknowledgment

      We are grateful to all our teachers and university professors, covering the years from primary school to graduate school. Our sincere appreciation is for Prof. R. Iravani for his years of great advice throughout the Ph.D. program and postdoctoral fellowship.

      We appreciate a life‐long of support provided by our parents and wives for their love and affection.

      Our special thanks go to our colleagues and friends for their encouragement during the preparation of this book and our professional career.

Acronyms

ACAlternating CurrentAFCApproved for ConstructionALAngular LossesAMAir MassAOIAngle of Incidencea‐SiAmorphous SiliconBEPBreak Even PointB&QBill of QuantitiesCCTVClosed Circuit TelevisionCdTeCadmium TellurideCFCapacity FactorCISCopper, Indium, SeleniumCTCurrent TransformerCZTSCopper Zinc Tin SulfideDCDirect CurrentDEMDigital Elevation ModelDHIDiffuse Horizontal IrradianceDIgSIlentDigital Simulator for Electrical NetworkDNIDirect Normal IrradiationDSMDigital Surface ModelEHVExtra‐High VoltageEPCEngineering, Procurement, and ConstructionETAPElectrical Transient Analyzer ProgramESCExtremum Seeking ControlETRExtraterrestrial RadiationETSEmits Extraterrestrial SpectrumEVAEconomic Value AddedFLMFirst‐Line ManagementFPVFloating PVGaAsGallium ArsenideGaInPGallium Indium PhosphorousGHIGlobal Horizontal IrradiationGIGSCopper Indium Gallium DeselenideGPRGround Potential RiseGTIGlobal Tilted IrradiationHJTHetero‐Junction TechnologyHSEHealth, Safety, and EnvironmentalHVHigh VoltageIBCInterdigitated Back ContactIEAInternational Energy AgencyIECInternational Electrotechnical CommissionIEEEInstitute for Electrical and Electronic EngineersIFAIssue for ApprovalIFCIssue for CommentIFIIssue for InformationIncCondIncremental ConductanceIRRInternal Rate of ReturnI–VCurrent–VoltageLIDLight‐Induced DegradationLS‐PVPPLarge‐Scale Photovoltaic Power PlantLVLow VoltageLVSLow‐Voltage SwitchgearMDLMaster Document ListMono siMonocrystalline SiliconMPPMassively Parallel Processing/ProcessorMPPTMaximum Power Point TrackingMS‐PVPPMedium‐Scale PV power plantMVMedium VoltageMWMegaWattNECNational Electrical CodeNRELNational Renewable Energy LaboratoryNRMSENormalized Root Mean Square ErrorsNPRNominal Power RatioNPVNet Present ValueNZENet‐Zero EmissionsNZE2050New Net‐Zero Emissions By 2050OCVOpen‐Circuit VoltageO&MOperations and MaintenancePCCPoint of Common CouplingPDCPersonal Digital Cellular SystemPIDPotential‐Induced DegradationPoly‐SiPolycrystalline siliconP&OPerturbation and ObservationPRPerformance RatioPSCADPower System Computer‐Aided DesignPTPotential TransformerPVPhotovoltaicP–VPower–VoltagePVCPolyvinyl ChloridePVPPSmall‐Scale PV Power PlantSCSolar ConstantSCADASupervisory Control and Data AcquisitionSCCShort‐Circuit CurrentSLDSingle‐Line DiagramSPDSurge Protective DeviceSTCStandard Test ConditionTHDTotal Harmonic DistortionTSITotal Solar IrradianceUFCUnified Facility CriteriaUFLUnder Frequency LoadUHVUltrahigh VoltageULUnderwriters LaboratoriesUVUltravioletVCIVirtual Central InverterVLS‐PVPPVery Large‐Scale PV Power PlantWBSWork Breakdown StructureXLPECross‐Linked Polyethylene

Symbols

A Land area of a power plantWP Total output power η M Solar module efficiencyG Solar irradianceL F Land factorNPV Difference between present values of the input and the outputB n Benefit at year nN Project life (year)c n Cost at year ni Discount or interest rateIRR Average annual rate of return of a PV plantI Discount or interest ratec Initial investmentBEP Break‐Even PointF Total fixed costsV Variable costs per unit of power productionS Savings or additional returns per unit of power productionI sc Short‐circuit current at the measurement pointI max Maximum amount of the fundamental current componentr Sun–earth distancer Average annual distanceH Irradiation from global radiation on the horizontal planeH D Irradiation from diffuse radiation on the horizontal planek B Shading correction factor as described (non‐shaded: kB = 1)R B Direct beam irradiation factorR D Diffuse radiation factor α 1 Horizon elevation in the γ direction α 2 Facade/roof edge elevation relative to the solar generator plane β Inclination angle of the surface relative to the horizontal plane ρ Reflection factor of the ground in front of the solar generator δ Declination angle φ Latitude ω Hour angle θ Angle of incidenceL ST Standard meridian for the local time zoneL Ioc Location longitudeTE Timen Day number θ Z Zenith angleε Sky clearness indexΔSky brightness indexI b, n DNIm Air massI E Extraterrestrial irradianceI b Beam irradiance on a horizontal surfaceR b Ratio of the beam radiation on the tilted surfaceI d, tilt DHI ρ g Ground reflectance γ Solar azimuth α Solar altitudeD Shading distanceL Length of PV array

Projective length of solar raysK Weight of PV array ϕ Latitude of the locationModuleV mp, min Minimum module voltage expected at the highest site temperatureV mp Rated module voltage at max powerT max Temperature coefficient at maximum expected temperatureΔT Temperature variance between standard test condition (STC) and maximum expected temperatureN s, min Minimum number of PV modules in seriesInverterV min Inverter minimum MPPT voltageModuleV OC, max Maximum module voltage corrected for the lowest ambient temperatureV OC Rated open‐circuit voltage of the PV moduleT min Temperature coefficient at minimum expected temperatureN S, max Maximum number of PV modules in seriesInverterV max Inverter maximum allowable voltageModuleI DC, max Maximum string currentI DC Short‐circuit current of the PV moduleT max Temperature coefficient at maximum expected temperatureP PV, nom Rated PV installed powerG Th A nominal irradiance levelNPR Inverter downsize coefficient (nominal power ratio)P inv, nom − total Total power of the inverter that is required for the entire power plantP inv, nom − exp ected Expected power of the inverterS AC AC active power η Inverter efficiencyS F Safety coefficient and is generally considered between 1.2 and 1.3I O Cable current carrying capacity from datasheetI O, NEW Current carrying capacity corresponding to the installation conditionsT F Correction factor used for ambient temperatureG F Reduction factor used for more than one circuitR Cable resistance per meter.N mod ule Number of modules connected in series to a stringP n Total Pm, STC (nominal power PV module at STC) of modules connected in series (w)V ID Reverse voltage of string diodeV OC, STC Maximum operating open‐circuit voltage of the stringN string Number of PV modules in stringI sc, STC Short‐circuit currentk T Ambient temperature coefficient from datasheetk L Alternating load factor that is normally considered as 0.9k H Derating factor for high number of adjacent fusesI FD Fuse rated current given in the datasheetI DC, max Isc at maximum ambient temperaturek Ir Maximum irradianceI SC, MOD Short‐circuit current of the PV moduleT max normal Maximum