Disaster Response and Recovery. David A. McEntire

are infected. It is estimated that over 3,700 birth defects (e.g., microcephaly, eye abnormalities, and developmental disabilities) were attributed to Zika.

      The worst biological hazard in recent history is Covid‐19. The severe respiratory virus named Covid‐19 was discovered in Wuhan City, China, toward the end of December 2019. While the exact source is debated (wet market vs. biological lab), Covid‐19 soon became a major concern in China and around the world. Common symptoms of Covid‐19 are similar to the flu and include fever, chills, fatigue, headache, muscle aches, sore throat, congestion, runny nose, diarrhea, and vomiting. The virus may also impact smell and taste, and it can lead to other very serious respiratory complications. Because Covid‐19 is highly infectious and deadly, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a global pandemic in March 2020. President Trump instituted a proactive travel ban against passengers from China, but the disease quickly spread throughout the United States anyway. Dr. Anthony Fauci (the Director of the National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases) and other medical personnel and spokespersons were initially unclear about the threat and the importance of wearing masks. Even after the risk was recognized and conveyed, President Trump was vague about the need to wear masks and he seemed to actively oppose them at times too. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and ventilators were initially in short supply during the Covid‐19 pandemic, and public health and medical personal were overwhelmed with needy patients. These are a few of the many reasons why 45.4 million Americans have been infected and over 736,000 people have died in the United States (at the time of this writing). Much more clearly needs to be done to prepare for these types of biological hazards.

      Source: U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, https://phil.cdc.gov/default.aspx

      Covid‐19 required a massive mobilization of antiviral medications such as Remdesivir for Covid‐19 patients in Texas hospitals. Julie Joseph/FEMA.

       https://www.fema.gov/news‐release/20200522/photos‐whole‐america‐covid‐19‐response

      For Example

       The Locust Plague of 2019/2020

      It is difficult to know how to categorize a locust plague. Regardless of how it is labeled, the presence of millions or even billions of locusts (a type of large grasshopper) may produce serious devastation to crops as has been witnessed in Africa for centuries. In 2019 and 2020, the infestation was particularly problematic in East Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. The swarms of locusts (spreading out over miles and miles) are migratory and can devour crops quickly and threaten food supplies. It is one of many reasons why there is a food shortage in many African nations today.

      Self‐Check

       What is a natural hazard?

       What are the types of natural hazards?

       Are atmospheric and hydrological hazards related?

       Is there a connection between geologic and seismic hazards? If so, how?

       What are the effects of biological hazards?

1.3 Technological Hazards

      Technological hazards are hazard agents related to manufacturing, nuclear materials, the built environment and transportation systems. These hazards abound in our modern, industrial world, and they range from hazardous materials releases and environmental degradation to structural failures and beyond.

      1.3.1 Industrial Hazards

      Industrial hazards are hazard agents produced by the extraction, creation, distribution, storage, use and disposal of chemicals. Chlorine, benzene, insecticides, plastics, fuel and other materials are released into the atmosphere when regulations are ignored, employees are untrained or careless, and equipment fails. Such materials in solid, liquid, or gas state may be corrosive, toxic, flammable or explosive. They may react in very complex ways depending on temperature and the presence of water, oxygen or other chemicals.

      The release of methyl isocyanate (MIC) in Bhopal, India, from the Union Carbide Company is regarded to be the most‐deadly industrial accident in history. While the cause of this event has been under debate, it is believed that poor maintenance at the chemical plant resulted in an accidental chemical release. Forty‐five tons of gas was emitted into the city, killing anywhere between 2,500 and 10,000 people. Although there is continued disagreement about the extent of fatalities and the cause of this hazard, the event had a profound impact on hazardous materials regulations in the United States and elsewhere (i.e., the creation of the Emergency Planning and Community Right‐to‐Know Act or EPCRA in 1986).

      Unfortunately, industrial hazards have been and continue to be a in the United States and around the world. For instance, on April 16, 1947, a fire broke out on the SS Grandcamp, which was docked in the port of Texas City; 2,300 tons of ammonium nitrate set off a series of fires and explosions that killed nearly 600 people. A major fire broke out at the Alon refinery in Big Spring, Texas, on February 18, 2008. One of the pumps at the Propylene Splitter Unit released a liquid, which was ignited by a nearby flame. While no one was injured in the explosion, toxic fumes were released into the air and I‐20 had to be shut down while fire fighters battled the blaze for more than 4 hours.

      On October 4, 2010, a dike surrounding a reservoir at the Hungarian Aluminum Production and Sales facility broke and released 1 million cubic meters of alkaline water and red sludge. It traveled down a creek and settled in three communities. The noxious flood killed 10 people, injured 286, and affected 358 homes (Ministry of the Interior, 2011).

      On August 6, 2012, a Chevron refinery in Richmond, California, experienced a rupture of a pipe in the #4 Crude Unit. Flammable hydrocarbon fluid was released in a large vapor cloud, which then was ignited by an open flame. Many workers saved their lives by evacuating. Even though a shelter‐in‐place order was given for nearby cities, over 15,000 people suffered from respiratory ailments and some had to be admitted to hospitals.

A year later, a major industrial accident occurred in Texas (Figure 1‐6). A stockpile of ammonium nitrate at the West Fertilizer Company exploded and killed 15 people, including many volunteer firefighters. Damage from the 2013 blast destroyed a school, a nursing home, and numerous homes and businesses in a 37‐block area. The event prompted an investigation by the Chemical Safety Board and underscores the importance of land‐use planning and emergency preparedness.

Figure 1‐6 The April 20, 2013, West Texas fertilizer plant explosion produced major damages, including to this apartment complex. Earl Armstrong/FEMA. http://www.fema.gov/media‐library/assets/images/70270

      An even more devastating explosion occurred in Beirut on August 4, 2020. 2,750 tons of ammonium nitrate were stored unsafely at a port warehouse for more than