Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): A Methodology of Bilingual Teaching. Bernd Klewitz

neural network is used for the acquisition of L1 and L2. It appears that late L2 learners’ language can be located in the left part of the cortex, the so-called Broca area, the part of the brain connected to speech production (Videsott: 162). Overall, a comprehensive neural network is observed in the classic language environment, including Wernicke’s area which is the part of the cerebral cortex linked to the comprehension of written and spoken language (ibid.: 160). But many issues in the neural context of language acquisition remain unresolved; a common denominator, however, regards the L2 learning process as being influenced by languages that the learner already knows and confirms language transfer, especially as a bidirectional cross-linguistic influence.

      Activating different cerebral areas for language comprehension and production remains a very complex process, depending—apart from its neural location—on additional factors like exposure, age, fluency, motivation, proficiency and learning strategies. The latter are, at least in school settings of foreign language instruction, often based on pseudo-communicative situations: a teacher too often keeps asking questions the answers to which s/he already knows. Much more effective would be the negotiation of meaning as a real process of communication by which the students have the occasion to produce more spontaneous output and gain more insight in their own learning processes and thus the aforementioned language awareness:

      Language Awareness can be defined as explicit knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching and language use.

      It covers a wide spectrum of fields. For example, Language Awareness issues include exploring the benefits that can be derived from developing a good knowledge about language, a conscious understanding of how languages work, of how people learn them and use them.

      Can we become better language users or learners or teachers if we develop a better understanding? And can we gain other advantages: e.g. in our relations with other people and/or cultures, and in our ability to see through language that manipulates or discriminates? Language Awareness interests also include learning more about what sorts of ideas about language people normally operate with, and what effects these have on how they conduct their everyday affairs: e.g. their professional dealings. (https://lexically.net/ala/la_defined.htm. Last viewed 03/05/2021.).

      Overall, many standards of language learning have been confirmed by neuro-cognitive research, especially the fact that learning engages the entire person in terms of cognitive, affective and psycho-motoric domains. The research, however, has also indicated that many traditional language-teaching strategies are quite inefficient (Ellis 1994) and that the focus on teaching grammar and vocabulary does not lead to accurate and fluent L2 usage. Students need to be given opportunities to practice and use their language skills in communicative situations:

      For language development to occur, interaction has to take place; language cannot be acquired passively. Although imitation and habit forming do have a role in language acquisition, children seem predisposed to acquire speech and competency in language by being able to map language, possibly onto what Noam Chomsky calls a ‘language acquisition device.’ (Lanir 2019: n.p.).

3.5 The Task-based Approach

      Sometimes the focus on grammatical forms may be an advantage provided that L2 learners have reached a stage where explanations and the comprehension of rules and their implementation are possible (cf. Videsott: 11). But “the role of formal instruction itself has been a perennial area of debate, and more than 20 years of research have failed to yield firm guidelines for grammar teaching methodology” (Borg 1999: 157, cit. in Timmis 2012:119). This is why the use of tasks in language teaching has developed as a distinct concept of Task Based Teaching and Learning (TBLT; cf. chapter 6.3), connecting grammar pedagogy and task-based methodology. A task in this sense is embedded in a language project, “an activity in which a person engages in order to attain an objective, and which necessitates the use of language” (Ellis 2003: 1f). With a primary focus on meaning, task-based verbs are used to close particular gaps in information, reasoning and opinion—allowing for students to choose the necessary language skills and attaining a clearly defined non-linguistic outcome (cf. De Florio 2018: 80).

      What kind of language is needed to close these gaps depends as much on the needs of the students involved as the selection of grammar skills and lexis. But “how much grammar is needed?” is an oft-asked question, in this context answered by post-modern language methodology with the proposal “not as much as commonly believed”. And the theory of practice is reflected in the guidelines of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL): “Meaning needs to precede form as the basis for comprehension: before looking at letters or characters, before looking for clues in grammatical forms or word order, before trying to figure out details, learners should search for overall meaning.” (ACTFL 2020: n.p.) Implications for teaching strategies in CLIL programs will be discussed in detail in chapter 8 (CLIL Tools and Skills, 8.2: Task-based Language Teaching—TBLT).

      Review—reflect—research

      Franz Boas would not have reneged on his strong believe that “America was politically an ideal country”. But would he, in the light of four years of Trumpism?

      In the light of different theories about Second Language Acquisition (SlA), what can be inferred from these about how foreign languages can best be taught?

      There are different opinions about “nature versus nurture” in the neuro-biological domain. Why does this controversy not go away according to Steven Pinker?

1 This part of my narrative is based on general literature, and individual contributions served as a blueprint, such as NYU 2015, Everett 2017, Lanir 2019, Meisel 2019.

2 Different and culture dependent aspects of standard-based learning and competence levels are referred to in “American Standards”, “Australian VCE” and “CEF”.