Ants. M. V. Brian

can be shot for several centimetres from this after it has been bent round under the mesosoma and directed forwards. The Dolichoderinae do not produce a liquid jet but in most cases a sticky toxic chemical is extruded from their slit-shaped anus. The difference between queens and workers in the Formicinae is considerable, though the workers do lay eggs in some genera and may produce females as well as males from unfertilized eggs. Other primitive features are the retention of a cocoon to enclose the pupa, the presence of visible ocelli in workers (in some genera) and the incompletely-fused mesosomal sutures. Often, too, they are highly individual and forage singly. Most seem to have a well-developed valve between the crop where imbibed food is stored before regurgitation to larvae and the midgut where food is digested. This is kept closed by the presence of fluid in the crop and does not need a persistent muscular effort, as it is thought to do in the Myrmicinae. Often these ants have quite good vision through the usual insect compound eyes but some species rely entirely on chemical and tactile senses. All make use of nectar and honeydew as well as hunting prey but they do not appear to eat seeds very much (unless these have an oily caruncle).

      There are only two genera of formicine ants represented in the British Isles, Lasius and Formica. Lasius are smaller than Formica and have less well-developed eyes. They form a large, diverse genus that is widely distributed throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The eight British species have a slightly southerly bias: there are only five in Scotland and none at all in the Northern Isles (Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland.) Some are yellow and live entirely in the soil, others are jet black and forage in files up trees for honeydew. Their colonies are often enormous, extending to tens of thousands, and they may have only one queen. In general Lasius are very skilled at making nests out of soil or wood pulp. Undoubtedly the most striking is the jet black, large-headed Lasius fuliginosus which forages up tall trees from a carton nest in a rotting stump. It occurs sporadically in southern England. The queens are not much bigger than the workers and are unable to found colonies alone; they parasitize Lasius umbratus and other species as a first stage in colony formation. Lasius umbratus also has small queens and seems to be an obligate social parasite of Lasius niger. It is not often seen above ground, as its name implies, but is said to accompany Lasius fuliginosus up trees from mixed nests. Lasius brunneus, too, nests in old trees, usually oak, in open country; it has a curious distribution in the south Midlands, in part of which it has taken to entering the timber of buildings. Lasius alienus, a small, brown species, lives in subsurface galleries in the warm soils of heathland, limestone or chalk; it ejects the excavated soil to form characteristic craters in spring. Very common in Europe it extends like Tetramorium caespitum into Ireland and Scotland along the coasts. The behaviour of this ant seems to vary geographically: thus in England it rarely ascends into bushes, as it does in the Mediterranean area, but in America it lives in woodland. Lasius flavus is even more confined to the soil and in many parts of western Europe it builds large mounds of soil which are permanently covered with vegetation and which become a conspicuous feature of the landscape in areas of uncultivated grassland. It ranges throughout the British Isles except for parts of northern Scotland and Ireland. In many places, however, it is unable to form mounds: on steep slopes, in areas of high rainfall, in dry sandy soil or in cultivated grassland.

      One of the most commonly encountered ants is Lasius niger. It is widely distributed throughout the British Isles but appears to be absent from some places in Ireland and Scotland. Bushy scrubland and gardens or wet places are its favourite habitats and it inhabits grassland only when stones or the mounds of Lasius flavus, which is a much more skilful builder, are available for it to nest in.

      Formica is a genus of big, long-legged ants that spend their foraging lives in shrubs and trees and may build large mound nests of plant debris, although some only excavate galleries and chambers in the soil. It is widely distributed throughout the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere. There are eleven species in this country, nine in southern England, five in northern England, six in Scotland, five in Wales and three in Ireland. It thus shows a considerable southern bias.

      The simplest Formica species are Formica fusca and Formica lemani. Both are black, have relatively small colonies and live in simple excavated nests in soil. They have strong workers that hunt and forage in bushes alone and are capable of carrying large prey back to the nest. These two species differ in several small ways; Formica fusca is less hairy, has up to half its pupae bare and is said to have fewer queens; it seems to be absent from all of Scotland except the Western Isles. Formica lemani occurs farther north than Formica fusca and is the only Formica in the Northern Isles. Both the species are common and widespread wherever they occur and in areas where they overlap Formica lemani tends to live in the cooler zones with the more northerly aspect.

      There are also a number of rare Formica in this country, allied to Formica fusca; Formica cunicularia occurs in England and is slightly browner and hairier than fusca and often collects some plant material to make a small mound nest; Formica rufibarbis is quite reddish and very local. These are both common on the mainland of Europe. Formica transkaucasica, a jet black and shiny ant, is very rare, even in the south, but extends widely into Asia and is said to be the species which lives highest in the Himalayas. In England it is a specialist bog liver and covers its nests with small domes of cut grass, often on the tops of Molinia tussocks. Formica sanguinea is a large, red ant allied to the wood ants and has the habit of collecting the pupae of Formica fusca; many of these are eaten but some hatch out and the fusca workers stay on in the sanguinea nests, co-operating in the nest work; they have misleadingly been called ‘slaves’. The queens enter Formicafusca nests and replace the normal queen, thus living temporarily as social parasites. Formica sanguinea is widely but patchily distributed in the British Isles; it occurs in Scotland and southern England but not in northern England, Wales or Ireland. Formica exsecta is a small wood ant with a distribution like that of Formica sanguinea; it can be recognized by the cut-out scale and back of the head and by the fact that it builds mounds of vegetation in scrub and heath that are never very large and are really not much more than thatched soil mounds.

      Finally in this cursory survey come the spectacular wood ants, well known for making huge mounds of vegetation debris with tracks to and up large forest trees on which they hunt for food. All have good sight and are expert with jets of formic acid which they can shoot several centimetres. There are three species. Formica rufa ranges over most of eastern and western England but is rare in the north and absent in Scotland and Ireland. Formica lugubris by contrast ranges from Wales and Ireland through northern England to Scotland, where it is widespread in the Highlands but apparently not in the Lowlands. The third, Formica aquilonia, is almost confined to the Scottish Highlands but has been recorded from one place in Ulster. It is an inhabitant of northern Europe and the High Alps. The differences in ecology between these species, so far as they are known, will be discussed later. On the European mainland there are two other species; one, Formicapolyctena, is very like rufa but has many more queens. Another, Formica pratensis, is less wood-bound than rufa and lives in meadows and roadsides, where it makes rather small nests. In central southern England it has recently been extinguished by suburban development.

      The sub-family Dolichoderinae is represented only by the species Tapinoma erraticum, an active small, black ant with many queens in its colonies. This species makes nests in heathland; they are a mere 10 cm across and are covered with, and in part constructed of, vegetable debris. The ants seem always to be moving from one to another during the summer. Though widely distributed in Europe this species is confined to the central south of this country.

      SPECIES RICHNESS

      It is quite obvious from what has been said that the south is richer in species than the north. To be precise, of the 42 so far found in the British Isles, 33 occur in Dorset, 31 in Hampshire, 29 in Surrey, 27 in the Isle of Wight, 26 in East Kent and South Devon and 24 in Berkshire (see fig. 8). The regional divisions into which the Watsonian system groups its vice-counties show that Channel has 37, Thames 31 and Severn only 25 species. South Wales (24), Anglia