The Handy Psychology Answer Book. Lisa J. Cohen

Fonagy and Mary Target have added to attachment literature with their dual concepts of self-reflective functioning and mentalization. They propose that security of attachment in adulthood involves the capacity for self-reflective functioning, which means the ability to reflect upon one’s emotional experiences in a thoughtful and coherent way. The ability to mentalize emotional experiences involves the capacity to represent one’s own and others’ mental experiences; that is, to understand and grasp the nature of emotional experience. In their view, the child’s security of attachment is not only dependent on the mother’s sensitive behavior but also on her psychological sensitivity. When the mother can keep her child’s subjective experience in mind, she teaches the child that emotions can both be understood and communicated. The child’s development of self-reflective functioning is therefore dependent upon the mother’s mentalization of the child’s experiences. Fonagy and Target have applied these concepts to their work with adults with severe personality disorders, many of whom sorely lack both self-reflective and mentalization abilities.

      Does a parent’s attachment style necessarily translate into a child’s attachment style?

      There is a strong relationship between security of attachment in parents and security of attachment in their children. Secure adults are more likely to raise secure children and insecure adults are more likely to raise insecure children. However, the type of insecure attachment in adults is less strongly correlated with the type of insecure attachment in their children. Some dismissing mothers may have resistant children and some preoccupied mothers may have dismissing children.

      SOCIOBIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY

      What is sociobiology?

      By the end of the twentieth century, evolutionary concepts were increasingly penetrating psychological theories. For example, both attachment theory and Jungian psychology borrow from evolutionary biology. The field of sociobiology explicitly applies the principles of evolutionary theory to the understanding of social behavior. This approach assumes that at least some part of social behavior is genetically based and therefore has been acted upon by evolution. In other words, when a behavior has survived across thousands of generations, it most likely serves an evolutionary purpose. This approach was first applied to the study of non-human animals; it wasn’t until the 1970s that evolutionary theory was rigorously applied to the study of human social behavior.

      What is evolutionary psychology?

      Evolutionary psychology is an outgrowth of sociobiology that focuses specifically on the evolutionary roots of human behavior.

      What is the theory of evolution?

      The theory of evolution is the grand biological theory that explains the origin and development of all living beings. Every culture on earth has some conception of how life on earth was created. For example, the ancient Greeks believed that the earth and sky were created by a primordial goddess, who rose out of the void called Chaos. After dividing the earth from the sky, she created swirling winds by dancing on the waves of the ocean. This gave rise to a giant serpent, who then fertilized her, setting in motion the rest of creation.

      The theory of evolution, however, is the only scientific theory of the development of living beings. The theory of evolution states that species change over time as they adapt to their environment. Traits that help the individual organism successfully adapt to the environment increase the likelihood that the organism will grow to maturity and pass on these traits to the next generation. Importantly, this theory does not explain how life started in the first place but rather, once life began, how every living being has come to have the shape and form that it has now.

      Why is the theory of evolution called a theory?

      Even though an enormous body of scientific evidence supports the theory of evolution, it is still called a theory. This is because a scientific theory is based on evidence. Therefore, as new evidence comes in, the theory continues to be modified.

      How important is evolutionary theory to the biological sciences?

      The theory of evolution is the conceptual bedrock of all biological sciences. It provides an explanatory framework for all biological research. In order to fully understand the structure and history of any plant or animal, biologists question how various traits evolved over time as they helped the organism adapt to the environment and consequently pass these traits onto the next generation.

      Why was the theory of evolution controversial?

      Charles Darwin (1809-1882) introduced his theory of evolution in 1859. At this point, science had played a central role in Western society for two centuries. Nonetheless, the conflict between science and religion was still ongoing. Whenever science bumped up against cherished religious beliefs, there was tremendous resistance against the new scientific ideas. Prior to the theory of evolution, the variety of life on earth was seen as a product of God’s creation. All creation occurred, according to the book of Genesis, with no changes since. To suggest that animals had changed over time implied that God’s creation was less than perfect. In addition, Darwin’s theory challenged the long held assumption that human beings are entirely distinct from and superior to the animals. In Judeo-Christian theology, human beings were created in God’s own image and given domain over the animals. In evolutionary theory, humans are not different from animals; they are animals and have evolved from other animals. To add insult to injury, we have evolved from apes. We are the cousins of chimpanzees. Unsurprisingly, Darwin’s theory was highly controversial in its day. In some circles it remains so today. Scientifically, however, Darwin’s basic premises have never been seriously challenged.

      Is the theory of evolution still controversial?

      While the theory of evolution is thoroughly accepted among scientists, the conflict between science and religion continues to this day. In the United States, numerous states and school districts have passed laws that encourage public school teachers to present evolutionary theory as more scientifically questionable than it really is. Similar religious concerns have impacted the writing of textbooks. In contrast, other religious figures believe that science and religion can co-exist, taking the position that science serves to illuminate God’s plan. This was the conclusion of Isaac Newton (1642–1727), the seventeenth-century genius who revolutionized mathematics and physics.

      Who was Charles Darwin?

      Charles Darwin (1809–1882) is easily one of the most influential figures in modern science. His theory of evolution has influenced every scientific discipline involved with living organisms.

      Darwin was not the first proponent of a theory of evolution. In fact, his grandfather Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802) contributed to early work on the subject. What was missing in Darwin’s day was an exact explanation of the mechanism of evolution and appropriate supporting evidence. Darwin gathered evidence for his theory on his famous sea voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle in 1831, in which he traveled from England to the coast of Africa, to the southern tip of South America and back. It took him almost thirty years, though, to publish his observations as a coherent theory.

      By the time Darwin published his famous essay On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859, the scientific community was ready to receive it. It was an immediate sensation. Darwin’s theory of genetics, however, was not well developed. The monk Gregor Mendel did not publish his study of pea plants until 1866 and Darwin’s work was not appreciated until the beginning of the twentieth century. The current view of evolution reflects a synthesis of Darwin’s theory of natural selection and modern genetics, which have their foundation in Mendel’s research.

      Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution provides the theoretical foundation for all of biological science. Evolutionary theory also contributes to our understanding