The Handy Psychology Answer Book. Lisa J. Cohen

does emotion fit in?

      Although strict behaviorists avoided all emotional terms, learning theory fully depends on emotion. In Thorndike’s Law of Effect and the theory of operant conditioning that followed, the likelihood that a behavior will be increased or decreased depends on its emotional impact. Behavior is increased when it elicits positive emotion (reward) and reduced when it elicits negative emotion (punishment). While it is more difficult to speak of emotions in animals, modern scientists assume that the simple emotional processes involved in learning theory—that is, forms of pleasure and pain—apply to both animals and humans.

      What is associative or classical conditioning?

      Associative conditioning, also called classical or Pavlovian conditioning, refers to a form of learning in which a person or animal is conditioned to respond in a particular way to a specific stimulus. If a neutral stimulus is paired with an emotionally meaningful one, then the neutral stimulus will become associated with the second stimulus and elicit the same response. For example, if a child learns to associate a particular perfume with a beloved grandmother, the child will develop a positive response to the perfume. In contrast, if the child learns to associate going to the doctor with getting a painful shot, then the child will learn to fear the doctor. This basic concept is used in child rearing, advertising, political campaigns, the treatment of addictions, and much of animal training.

      What is the difference between the conditioned and the unconditioned stimulus?

      The unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus that elicits a natural and unlearned response. For example, the child does not have to learn to feel pain from the shot. A dog does not have to learn to feel pleasure when fed. The conditioned stimulus is a formerly neutral stimulus that now elicits a response through its pairing with the unconditioned stimulus. The perfume that the child associates with his grandmother is a conditioned stimulus. The doctor that the child associates with the shot is also a conditioned stimulus.

      What is the difference between the conditioned and the unconditioned response?

      The unconditioned response is the innate, unlearned response, for example loving the grandmother or feeling pain at the shot. The conditioned response is the learned response, for example loving the grandmother’s perfume or fearing the doctor.

      How is classical conditioning relevant to everyday life?

      Classical conditioning pervades everyday life. When we develop food aversions (e.g., a hatred of fish), phobias (e.g., a fear of dogs), or positive associations (an association of Paris with a romantic vacation), our behavior reflects classical conditioning. It is therefore no accident that so many advertising campaigns hire young, beautiful, and skimpily clad models. The advertisers want consumers to associate their product—be it a washing machine, paper clip, or automobile—with youth, beauty, and sex.

      How is classical conditioning relevant to animal behavior?

      As (non-human) animals lack higher cognitive abilities, such as complex reasoning, symbolic thought, or language, associative conditioning is a primary way that animals learn. Does your cat love to sit on the couch and purr? Does she associate the couch with affection and attention? Does your dog start to bark and wag his tail when you put on your shoes? Does he associate your shoes with his walk?

      What is operant conditioning?

      In operant conditioning, pioneered by B.F. Skinner (1904–1990), behavior is influenced less by the stimulus with which it is associated than by the effect of that behavior. Operant conditioning builds on Thorndike’s Law of Effect. If the effect of the behavior is positive, then it is reinforced, and the behavior is more likely to recur. If the effect of the behavior is negative, then it is punished and therefore less likely to be repeated.

      Who is Little Albert?

      Starting in 1920, John B. Watson conducted a series of experiments on a baby named Albert B. to investigate classical conditioning in human beings. While these experiments successfully support the principles of conditioned learning, Watson was chillingly insensitive to the emotional impact of his research methods on the baby.

      When Albert was about nine months old, he was exposed to a series of white fuzzy items, including a white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, and masks with and without white cotton hair. The presence of the rat was then paired with a loud noise created by banging a hammer against a steel pipe. This was repeated several times until little Albert grew terrified at the mere sight of the rat. Later experiments showed that Albert’s fearful reactions had generalized to other fuzzy white items, including a rabbit, dog, and Santa Claus mask. This generalized fear was still present several months after the original experiment.

      Today review committees are required in all research institutions in order to protect the rights of human research subjects.

      What are reinforcers?

      Reinforcers are consequences of a behavior that increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. For example, if a child is given an ice cream cone as consolation after throwing a temper tantrum, the temper tantrum has been reinforced. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

      This dog is receiving a treat. Dog treats are often used as positive reinforcement to teach dogs new behavior through the method of operant conditioning.

      What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

      Positive reinforcement is also called reward, and refers to the positive consequence of a behavior, which increases its likelihood of recurring. For example, employees are paid to do their job and performers who perform well are applauded. Negative reinforcement, to be distinguished from punishment, involves the removal of a negative condition as a consequence of the targeted behavior. If you lose weight by dieting, that is negative reinforcement.

      In the 1980s, a man with a saxophone and a small kitten on his shoulder frequented the New York City subways. He would play a harsh note on the saxophone as loudly as possible and offer to stop only if the passengers gave him money. This man was utilizing the principles of negative reinforcement (in this case it was also blackmail).

      How effective is punishment?

      Punishment involves the introduction of a negative consequence to a behavior with the intent of diminishing the frequency of the behavior. When a child is grounded for getting into a fight, this is punishment. The parents are trying to diminish the targeted behavior. Likewise, the criminal justice system relies on punishment to maintain an orderly and lawful society. Punishment can be extremely effective but it also has drawbacks. Although the early behaviorists avoided mental considerations, it is now clear that punishment, if done too frequently, creates anger, fear, and resentment and can breed an oppositional mindset, in which people try to cheat the system instead of willingly following the rules. B.F. Skinner distrusted punishment as well, stating that it had only short term effects and it did not teach alternative behavior.

      How is operant conditioning relevant to everyday life?

      Operant conditioning is in evidence in almost every aspect of daily life. When we are paid for our work, evaluated for a merit raise by our managers, thanked by a friend for being considerate, penalized for paying taxes late, or even given a parking ticket, operant conditioning is in play.

      How is operant conditioning relevant to animal life?

      Most of animal training involves operant conditioning. When we spray our cat with a squirt gun after he jumps on the kitchen counter or give our dog a treat after he rolls over, we are using operant conditioning.