The Handy American History Answer Book. David L. Hudson

two future presidents were war heroes during the War of 1812?

      Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison (1773–1841), the future seventh and ninth presidents, respectively, achieved great acclaim during the War of 1812 for military successes. Jackson led a group of militia and others against British forces in the Battle of New Orleans, which took place between December 1814 and January 1815. Jackson led American forces to a stunning victory over the British.

      General William Henry Harrison won the Battle of the Thames over the Shawnee Indian leader Tecumseh in 1813. Harrison originally achieved acclaim when, as governor of the Indiana territory, he led a successful campaign against a group of Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe.

       What battle in the War of 1812 led to the “Star-Spangled Banner”?

      A young lawyer named Francis Scott Key became inspired to write a ballad—later known as the “Star–Spangled Banner”—after seeing an American flag still flying after the British attack on Fort McHenry in the Battle of Baltimore. His initial title was the “Defense of Fort McHenry.” In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson declared the “Star–Spangled Banner” the country’s national anthem.

      What caused the War of 1812?

      The war between the young United States and powerful Great Britain largely came about because of France. After the French Navy was crushed by the British under Admiral Horatio Nelson (1758–1805) at the Battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon turned to economic warfare in his long struggle with the British, directing all countries under French control not to trade with Great Britain. Its economy dependent on trade, Britain struck back by imposing a naval blockade on France, which soon interfered with U.S. shipping. Ever since the struggle between the two European powers began in 1793, the United States tried to remain neutral. But the interruption of shipping to and from the continent and the search and seizure of ships posed significant problems to the American export business. In 1807, Great Britain issued an Order in Council that required even neutral vessels destined for a continental port to stop first in England; Napoleon countered with the Milan Decree, stating that any neutral vessel that submitted to British search be seized.

      Back in America, the people of New England, the American region most dependent on shipping, nevertheless vehemently opposed entering into war with the British. But the country’s economy was depressed as a result of the interruption of exports, and the U.S. Congress declared war on June 18, 1812. In these days before telegraph and radio, the United States did not know that on June 16 Britain had withdrawn its Order in Council, lifting its policy of shipping interference—the chief reason for the war declaration. Thus the two countries engaged in fighting for the next two and a half years. On December 24, 1814, the Treaty of Ghent officially ended the war. But once again, poor communication led to fighting: Two weeks after the treaty was signed, troops in New Orleans, unaware of the treaty, fought for control over the Mississippi River in the worst battle of the entire conflict. Although both the United States and Great Britain claimed victory in the War of 1812, neither side gained anything.

      Artist Edward Percy Moran’s 1912 painting “By Dawn’s Early Light” depicts Francis Scott Key viewing the American flag flying over Fort McHenry after a British attack.

      Who were the War Hawks?

      The War Hawks were a group of Republicans in the U.S. Congress who advocated war with Great Britain. Elected in 1810, the congressmen took office in 1811, the failure of the Erskine agreement fresh in their memories. That bit of 1809 diplomacy, arranged by British minister to the United States George Erskine and the then-U.S. Secretary of State James Madison (1751–1836), would have provided for the suspension of Britain’s maritime practices that interfered with U.S. shipping, but the agreement fell apart when Erskine was recalled from office. The relationship between the United States and Great Britain—tenuous since 1807 due to trade embargoes and the impressment of American sailors into British service—deteriorated. The newly elected Congressmen were tired of the failure of diplomacy to resolve maritime problems with the British. They further felt the British were challenging the young United States through their policies, which purportedly included British aid to American Indians in the Northwest. War Hawk leader Henry Clay (1777–1852) was named Speaker of the House, and Congress soon passed a series of resolutions to strengthen the Army and Navy. When President James Madison called upon Congress to declare war on the British in June 1812, the War Hawks swung the close vote. Some historians believe the true motive behind the War Hawks’s actions was not resolution of the shipping problems but rather the desire to annex parts of southern Canada to the United States.

      What was future president William Henry Harrison’s role during the War of 1812?

      Harrison was promoted to major general and given authority over all military forces in the Northwest Territory. He battled both Indian forces—including Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa—and the British. In October 1813, he won the Battle of the Thames over Indian forces. This battle increased Harrison’s fame, making him a national figure even more than the Battle of Tippecanoe.

      Who was Tecumseh?

      Tecumseh (1768–1813) was the leader of the Shawnee, who was involved in clashes with the Americans in the Ohio Valley. He rose to prominence by 1800 and partnered with his religious leader brother, Tenskwatawa, to create a formidable confederacy of American Indian tribes. Tecumseh and his brother founded Prophetstown, Illinois, in 1808 and rebelled against the Americans in Tecumseh’s War, which essentially ended with the Shawnee loss to Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. Tecumseh, however, continued his resistance against the Americans by allying with the British during the War of 1812. Tecumseh helped the British capture Fort Detroit, but in 1813 the Americans enjoyed a decisive victory at the Battle of the Thames in Canada, and Tecumseh was killed on October 5, 1813.

       Who said, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours”?

      Captain Oliver Hazard Perry (1785–1819) wrote the famous words in a letter to General William Henry Harrison (1773–1841) after defeating the British at the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. An improvised U.S. squadron commanded by Captain Perry, just twenty-eight years old, achieved the victory in the War of 1812 battle. The message he sent to Harrison (later the ninth U.S. president) was: “We have met the enemy, and they are ours: two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.” Perry received a gold medal and thanks from Congress for the victory.

      What was future President Zachary Taylor’s role during the War of 1812?

      Taylor—then a captain—successfully defended Fort Harrison with a group of fifty men from a Tecumseh-led force of more than four hundred men in the War of 1812. The event is sometimes called the “Siege of Fort Harrison.” His success earned him the rank of Brevet Major, the first time this honor was ever awarded. The designation “brevet” signified that an officer displayed particular courage during military service.

      What happened to the nation’s capital during the War of 1812?

      British forces overran Washington, D.C., burning both the White House and the U.S. Capitol. General William Winder, whom Madison had appointed as commander in charge of defending the capital, did an inadequate job in preparing the area’s defenses. Madison had to flee the city after hearing from General Winder of the oncoming British invasion.

      Which member of Madison’s Cabinet lost his job as a result of the burning of the Capitol?

      Secretary of War John Armstrong received blame for the poor defense of the Capitol during the War of 1812. Armstrong resigned under pressure in September 1814, essentially as the scapegoat for the British burning of the capital city. President James Monroe served as both secretary of war and secretary of state.

      Artist George Munger’s depiction of the White House shortly after it was burned by British troops in 1814 (the S-shaped line near the corner of the roof was, historians guess, part of a lightning-protection system,