The Handy American History Answer Book. David L. Hudson

Crisis arose around the claims by some political leaders in South Carolina—including Jackson’s first vice president, John C. Calhoun (1782–1850)—that a state could nullify federal laws it found unconstitutional and not worthy of respect. South Carolina advocated the nullification doctrine after the U.S. Congress passed a tariff bill that state leaders found unwise and unfair.

      Jackson and Calhoun clashed over this issue of nullification. At one political event in 1830, President Jackson was asked to give a toast. Looking at his vice president, he said loudly: “The Federal Union—It Must Be Preserved!” Allegedly, Calhoun then gave the following toast as something of a retort: “The Union: next to our Liberty the most dear: may we all remember that it can only be preserved by respecting the rights of the States and distributing equally the benefit and burden of the Union!”

      Jackson removed Calhoun supporters from his Cabinet, and it was apparent that Calhoun’s political fortunes were dwindling in the Jackson Administration.

      What was the “Eaton Affair”?

      The Eaton Affair, also known as the Petticoat Affair (1830–1831), involved how the wives of Jackson’s Cabinet members treated Peggy Eaton, the wife of Secretary of War John Eaton. Many women, including Floride Calhoun—the wife of Vice President John C. Calhoun—believed Peggy Eaton did not comport herself properly and married John Eaton far too soon after the death of her first husband.

      Andrew Jackson sided with Peggy Eaton, leading to great tension among his Cabinet. It led to the effective dissolution of Jackson’s original Cabinet. Jackson came to rely on a group of informal advisors known as his “Kitchen Cabinet.”

       How was the Mormon Church established?

      Joseph Smith

      An interesting sidebar during this time in American history is the publication of the Book of Mormon and the story of Joseph Smith (1805–1844) and Brigham Young (1801–1877). Smith declared that in 1823 he had been visited by the angel Moroni, who revealed to Smith that a tribe of Israelites had escaped the Old World to settle in North America. Moroni then told Smith where to find golden plates that were buried near his home in Vermont and that revealed the history of these people and how they believed in Jesus centuries before the Savior’s birth. Smith also asserted that he had visions of Jesus and God and that they had commanded him to establish the Church of Christ (now the Church of Christ of Latter-Day Saints). After publishing the Book of Mormon in 1830, Smith and his growing number of converts were soon persecuted for their beliefs (many of them controversial, such as allowing polygamy), and they fled to Ohio and then Illinois. When Smith destroyed a newspaper that had criticized him and his church, he was arrested and, in 1844, killed by an angry mob. A successor was found in Brigham Young, who led the Mormons to a new home in Salt Lake City, Utah, where they could live free of persecution.

      Who comprised Jackson’s unofficial “Kitchen Cabinet”?

      Jackson’s “Kitchen Cabinet” consisted of Martin Van Buren (1782–1862)—his former secretary of state who would become his vice president in his second term; Francis Preston Blair, the editor of the Washington Globe; Amos Kendall, editor of two newspapers and later Jackson’s postmaster general; William B. Lewis, who formerly served as quartermaster under General Jackson; Andrew Jackson Donelson, the president’s nephew; John Overton, his longtime friend and business partner; and Roger B. Taney, his attorney general whom he later nominated as chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

      Who tried to assassinate President Jackson?

      An unemployed house painter named Richard Lawrence fired two guns at Jackson in Washington, D.C., in February 1835 as Jackson was leaving the funeral service of former U.S. Congressman Warren R. Davis. Jackson chased his assailant with his cane and made sure Lawrence was apprehended. Lawrence was a mentally ill man who sometimes believed he was the king of England. He had tried to kill his sister before and had threatened others. Lawrence was deemed insane and never brought to trial.

      What was Van Buren’s role in Jackson’s Cabinet?

      Van Buren played a key role in Jackson’s Cabinet, as he and Jackson were on good terms. Van Buren was the only member of Jackson’s Cabinet who was a member of Jackson’s Kitchen Cabinet. Historians believe Van Buren helped convince Jackson to eliminate his entire Cabinet, including Vice President Calhoun. Van Buren resigned his position but worked behind the scenes to help Jackson’s successful reelection.

      Why was James K. Polk called the “dark horse” candidate?

      In 1844, President James K. Polk (1795–1849; eleventh president, 1845–1849) did not appear on the radar screen as the next president of the United States; he had just lost two consecutive bids for the governorship of Tennessee. No one thought a candidate who could not win his own state could win the presidency. Additionally, the frontrunner for the Democratic Party at the 1844 convention was former President Martin Van Buren.

      However, Van Buren made a serious blunder by publicly coming out against the annexation of Texas—adding the state to the Union—as did Whig candidate Henry Clay. Perhaps Van Buren and Clay wanted to avoid the thorny slavery question that was so divisive in the country. President Andrew Jackson saw an opportunity for his protégé and with the help of other key politicians managed to move Polk onto a later ballot at the Democratic convention.

      As Van Buren could not obtain the necessary majority votes, it became clear that someone else would have to emerge. It turned out to be Polk, who became the Democratic Party’s nominee.

      What measure led to Polk’s success in lowering the tariff?

      The Walker Tariff Act of 1846—named after Polk’s secretary of the treasury, Robert J. Walker—achieved the president’s objective in lowering the tariffs that had been passed by the Whigs in 1842. Polk faced significant opposition in Congress. Vice President George M. Dallas cast the tie-breaking vote in the Senate that led to the law’s successful passage.

      What was Polk’s financial plan with regard to the Treasury?

      Polk wanted to avoid creating a national bank, placing the government’s money in private banks instead. Polk followed the example of Martin Van Buren, who had called for an independent treasury during his presidency. Unlike Van Buren, Polk managed to have his measure—which he called the Constitutional Treasury Act—passed into law. It lasted until 1913, when Congress created the Federal Reserve System.

      While many Americans do not think much about James K. Polk these days, historians often hold that he was one of the country’s most accomplished presidents.

      Why do some historians consider James K. Polk a great president?

      Many historians consider Polk a great president because he had several major accomplishments in his one term in office. In fact, Polk’s Secretary of the Navy George Bancroft, an esteemed historian, said Polk articulated four major goals upon assuming office: (1) lower tariffs; (2) create an independent treasury; (3) annex Oregon to the United States; and (4) obtain California from Mexico. Polk accomplished all four of these major objectives. President Harry Truman said of Polk: “He said exactly what he was going to do, and he did it.”

WAR OF 1812

      What unpopular legislation did Jefferson sign to avoid entering the English–French conflict?

      Jefferson signed the Embargo Act of 1807 to keep America completely out of the conflict between Great Britain and France. Each side prohibited any of its allies from trading with its enemy. Jefferson refused to become involved in the war and responded with the Embargo Act, an attempt to show the United States’s neutrality in the English–French conflict. The measure prohibited foreign trade with either nation. The banning of trade with either nation was unpopular, but it did lead to the creation of more textile mills and other industries