The Handy Military History Answer Book. Samuel Willard Crompton

that, being a peninsular nation with the city-states stretching from north to south, they had rather few neighbors. That was about to change with the arrival of the Persians.

      How far had Persia progressed since the death of Cyrus the Great?

      In only thirty years (530–500 B.C.E.) Persia had become the super state of the Middle East, the first true world superpower. The Persians knew nothing of China, and their sway ended at the Oxus River in Central Asia, but practically all the other nations and peoples had fallen under their banner. Even Egypt was conquered during the reign of Cyrus’ son, King Cambyses II.

      Persians called their leader the “King of Kings” because he received tribute from the former kings of Assyria, Babylon, Israel, Egypt, and elsewhere. The Persians often left the bureaucracy of the former peoples in place, with a thin layer of Persians and Medes at the top. Given all this success, one wonders why Persia needed to conquer Greece, and the answer is simple: it did not. Greece had no precious raw materials, nothing that Persia required. Instead, the campaigns against Greece were all about mastery and dominion. The Persian leaders were bothered, sometimes incensed, that this small people, to the far west of their empire, managed to remain independent.

      How did the Graeco-Persian Wars begin?

      In 498 B.C.E., the Greek city-states on the west coast of modern-day Turkey rose against their Persian overlords in the so-called Ionian Revolt. The mainland Greeks naturally supported the revolt, and when it was stamped out, the Persians decided to teach them a lesson. The first Persian offensive was in 493 B.C.E., but their ships were wrecked off the northern Greek coast, and the main challenge, therefore, had to wait another few years.

      In 490 B.C.E., the Greeks learned that the Persians were back, with a much larger fleet and army. The Persians were not natural sailors; they appropriated their ships and seamen from the Phoenicians, who they had conquered a generation earlier. With such a formidable combination of land and sea power, it seemed only a question of time before Greece was overwhelmed.

      Which of the Greeks were first on the scene?

      Athens, located on the southern side of the peninsula of Attica, was a natural target, but so was Corinth, located right at the junction between mainland and peninsular Greece. The Athenians learned, just in time, that the Persians were indeed coming to land in their area, and the runner Pheideippides was sent—with all haste—to alert the Spartans.

      Examples of how Greek soldiers dressed during the time of the Graeco-Persian Wars. At left is a soldier using a sling, and at right are “hoplites,” or foot soldiers.

      Arriving in Sparta after a run of 140 miles, Pheideippides was told that a religious festival was underway, and the Spartans could not depart until it was over. Declaring that Athens and Corinth might be laid waste, he ran the 140 miles back to Athens, where, presumably, he had a few days’ rest before heading out with the army.

      Where does the modern Marathon—exemplified by the Boston Marathon—get its name?

      Pheideippides and the Athenian army marched twenty-six miles to a set of hills overlooking the beach called Marathon. The Persians were drawn up on that beach, with archers, cavalry, and the support of their ships. The Athenian leaders conferred and decided to make a headlong attack and to come on the run. They rightly figured that the Persians were unused to this type of attack.

      The Persians were strongest in their center, but the Athenians attacked on their wings, driving all before them. The Greek historian Herodotus claims that 6,000 Persians died, while only 192 Greeks perished. Even if this is an exaggeration, there is no doubt that the Persians were stunned by the attack. Those who survived got onto their ships, and it was at that moment that the Athenian leaders recognized the danger. Though they had been mauled, the Persians could surely sail around the peninsula faster than the Greeks could march; it was imperative, therefore, to warn the city of the danger. Pheideippides was asked to make one more, supreme effort.

      How did Athens escape the danger?

      Pheideippides ran the entire twenty-six miles back to the city. He had run 140 miles to Sparta, 140 miles back. He had marched with his comrades to the beach and fought in an intense battle. Now he was asked to run once more, and he performed admirably. Tradition has it that Pheideippides reached the northern gates and shouted that the battle had been won but that danger still remained. At that moment, he died.

      Historians and athletes alike have long raised their eyebrows when first told the Pheideippides story. Could one person really do all that running, and fighting, and still have enough gas in the tank—figuratively speaking—to go the last twenty-six miles? Many of these doubts were put to rest in the first decade of the twenty-first century, when Californian Menares ran 262 miles without stopping, over a period of three days. Subsequent investigations turned up a small tribe of Mexican Apaches who routinely run over one hundred miles, and do so with the skimpiest of footwear.

      Who gained the most over the next decade?

      Athens, for certain. The other Greek city-states participated in the joyous celebrations, but the greatest glory, by far, went to Athens and its people. A new leader, too, emerged during that decade. His name was Themistocles, and he became the primary spokesman for Athens. When the Athenians stumbled on a silver strike in 483 B.C.E., Themistocles persuaded them to spend the treasure on building more warships rather than beautifying the city. He rightly suspected that the Persians would return.

       What does Thermopylae mean?

      The word has since come to stand for freedom and an inspired fight against great odds, but its original meaning was “hot gates.” There were some warm water springs close by.

      Leonidas and his 300—who had been joined by roughly 7,000 Greeks from other city-states—took up a defensive position at Thermopylae, with the mountains on their left flank and the sea on their right. This was a good strategy, but when the Persians arrived, it seemed utterly hopeless. Even though he had lost men to sickness and disease, Xerxes could still throw at least ten times as many as the defenders.

      Why did the Persians make such a grand appearance in 480 B.C.E.?

      This time, the King of Kings, Xerxes I, led the Persian army. The historian Herodotus claims that there were three million Persians, but even a figure one-tenth that large would still be an exaggeration; there simply wasn’t enough food to supply that many.

      Angered by the Persian repulse at Marathon, Xerxes planned a grand campaign, bringing almost 1,000 Phoenician ships, as well as his host. The Persians crossed the Hellespont and entered Thrace on their way to Greece. The Greeks knew they were coming, and appeals again went out from Athens to all the other city-states. This time, Sparta claimed it was not ready to field its army, but King Leonidas declared he would bring 300 of his best fighting men to northern Greece. That seemed like a mere drop in the bucket, but the Spartans were great warriors.

      What was the fighting like?

      We have no eyewitness accounts but can surmise that it was extremely thick and heavy. Three times, Xerxes threw Persian troops at the Greeks, and each time they were repulsed. The last attempt was made by The Immortals, Xerxes’ hand-picked bodyguards, but they, too, were turned back. Xerxes knew he could prevail over time, but he was in a hurry. His enormous army required food supplies, and the land just beyond Thermopylae was ripe for the picking. And then, just when everything was at its most difficult, the Persian monarch received a break. A traitor came forth.

      Ephialtes, a goat herder, offered to lead the Persians through a mountain trail that would position them behind the Greek position. A large section of Xerxes’ army set out on that way, while the rest stood and glared at the Greeks, with neither side making any attack. Just when the trap was about to be sprung, King Leonidas learned of the Persian maneuver. He asked, and then commanded, the 7,000 Greek allies to make haste and escape, while he and his 300 Spartans remained and fought to the last man.

      Where did the Persians go after their victory at Thermopylae?

      It was a