Quinoa. Atul Bhargava

movements according to daylight hours, various colours, high betacyanin and calcium oxalate content, and a deep and highly branched roots structure. The leaves and inflorescences are used as food. They produce small to medium grains, and have high saponin content. They are planted as a sole crop, generally as mixtures of local varieties. The cultivation technology under these rainfall conditions uses more seed for planting. Farmers usually plant this quinoa with camelid and sheep manure. Seeds are sown just after the first rain in these areas in Peru and at the end of winter in dry conditions in Chile. Under certain conditions roots and stems are used for llipta or llucta (preparation of the pungent ashes of the quinoa).

      These quinoas are also called ‘quinua’ with variety names such as Antahuara, Ucha, Ccoyto, Roja Ayauchana. They are located in Condoriri, Puno; Cangallo, Ayacucho; Acobamba, Huancavelica in Peru; Colchane and San Pedro de Atacama in Chile; Pisiga Choque in Bolivia.

       2.5.5 Quinoas from high altitudes and cool climate

      Plants are small with vivid colours like yellow, red or purple in the plants and grains. Seeds may be grey (Coitos) or black (Ayaras). The plant has small and compact glomerular panicles, with accentuated mechanisms of leaf rolling and decumbent panicles, especially at night (nyctinastic movements). This is a form of defence against cold, protecting the panicle and primordia, bending down or protecting young leaves with adult leaves. The bitter grain, which is high in protein, forms quite early and the plants exhibit cold resistance with mechanisms for tolerating frost (Jacobsen et al., 2007) and long and strong winds. They are grown above 4000 m in areas like Canchas and Qochas (Mujica, 2011), which have annual rainfall of 800 mm and short, sunny days. These types are resistant to ultraviolet radiation and have intense and varied pigmentation.

      Examples of landraces include Huariponcho, Witulla, Kellu, Kancolla Roja, grown in Macusani, Nuñoa, Laraqueri in Puno, Peru and Carhuamayo, Ondores, Junín, Peru.

       2.5.6 Quinoas from the coastal regions and near the sea

      This group of quinoas show characteristics specific to their environment, which includes an average annual rainfall of about 500–650 mm spread over 4–5 months and a high evapotranspiration index (Bazile et al., 2010; Núñez et al., 2010). The plants are adapted to salty and sandy soils. Small-scale farmers maintain this quinoa in marginal conditions along with other crops such as cereals. In the south of Chile, Mapuche women conserve a high diversity of landraces in home gardens, associated with cultural uses (Aleman et al., 2010; Thomet et al., 2010).

      These quinoas have medium branched plants, with glomerular panicles, and are salt-tolerant with small leaves. All of them have small and hard grain, usually protected by a perigonium that strongly adheres to the grain. The plants are resistant to excessive moisture, some of them growing in areas with over 2000 mm of annual rainfall, such as the Precordillera. In the southern region of Chile, these quinoas are called Kinwa or Dawe (Sepúlveda et al., 2004). These types have various uses as food, for example, in preparing beverages, and the grain flour is sometimes cooked in water or with soup.

      Examples of landraces include: Quinoa blanca in the central zone of Chile; Kinwa mapuche, Lito, Faro, Islunga in Temuco and Valdivia, Chile. Currently Altiplano and valley varieties have adapted perfectly to the Peruvian coast, using drip and sprinkler irrigation, obtaining yields of 7.5 t/ha.

       2.5.7 Quinoas from jungle and tropical zones

      This zone has tall, highly branched quinoas with a long vegetative period, large leaves typical of chenopods, bright and intense colours, large and loose panicles, usually amarantiform (loose), and small grains. They are resistant to mildew and excessive moisture, and can even grow in flooded soils. Quinoa plantings in this zone are associated with other plants such as maize, cassava, fruit trees and potatoes. The plants grow at altitudes between 800 and 1800 m that have an annual rainfall of over 1500 mm, and are heat and evapotranspiration resistant.

      Example of landraces include: Tupiza, A. Marangani in the Yungas of Bolivia, and Sandia, Puno, Ambo-Huánuco, Lares-Cusco, Marcapata, Cusco in Peru.

       2.5.8 Quinoa from high rainfall and humidity zones

      These quinoas are tall, highly branched, large panicled, small grained, high yielding and have a long vegetative period. The plants have a wide and thick root system that can grow in poorly drained soils. They are resistant to lodging and heavy rainfall (2000–3000 mm), with the lower leaves dropping when there is excessive moisture in the soil. These types are resistant to mildew but are strongly attacked by snails and slugs, and chewing and leaf miner larvae. The plants of this zone are consumed mainly as a leafy vegetable.

      Example of landraces include: Tupiza, Nariño, Sogamoso, Tunkahuan in El Dorado, Sogamoso, Colombia; Mérida in Venezuela; Tupiza in Bolivia and Amazonas, Peru.

      In this category, the quinoas from the Andes are short-day type, while those from coastal and southern Chile require a long photoperiod.

       2.5.9 Wild relatives of quinoa

      Quinoa is a sympatric plant, because areas of distribution and expansion are always accompanied by their wild relatives, which cross over and maintain variability. In each of the types of quinoa, specific wild relatives can be found (Mujica, 2010). The most common species are C. carnosolum Moq. (Chocca chiwa) and C. quinoa ssp. melanospermum Hunz. (ayara, ajara or aara) in the Andean area of Titicaca; C. petiolare Kunth., C. hircinum Schard. (Jatacco), C. insisum and C. ambrosioides in the inter-Andean valleys; C. carnosolum, C. hircinum and C. petiolare (aaras, ajaras) in the salares; C. petiolare and C. hircinum in the dry, arid and high zones; C. pallidicaule Aellen, C. hircinum and C. quinoa ssp. melanospermum in the high and cold areas (having valuable genes for resistance to drought and cold) (Mujica et al., 2008); C. ambrosioides, C. quinoa ssp. melanospermum and other introduced species such as C. album (Hierba de gallinazo o cenizo) in the coastal areas (Mujica and Jacobsen, 2006); C. ambrosioides L. (Paicco) and C. insisum (Asna paicco or Arka paicco) in the Yungas and tropical zones (used to control gastrointestinal amoebas); C. carnosolum and C. quinoa ssp. melanospermum in the humid zones and high rainfall area (consumed by the Andean people as a vegetable and for medicinal uses) (Mujica, 2007).

      There are other quinoas in Central America, in the central valley of Mexico, called Huatzontle, used for their inflorescences and leaves. These are medium-sized plants, with a high saponin content, and are not consumed as grains. Plants with green and yellow colours and medium-sized grains correspond to C. berlandieri ssp. nuttalliae or C. nuttalliae, and its wild relative is C. graveolens. The dish prepared with the inflorescences is called Capeado de huatzonthe.

       2.6 Concluding Remarks

      The domestication process for the genus Chenopodium, and for the species quinoa in particular, took place in various independent or linked areas over the same period or through migrations of people that conferred an adaptation to new ecological environments. So, current landraces are closely connected with specific geographical locations leading to the generation of distinct genotypes within the same species. These adaptations to specific agroecological regions generated five main ecotypes of the crop, which are associated with diversity sub-centres corresponding to the geographical regions and each of these groups displays high variability under specific agricultural practices. Considering these farmers’ practices under agro-meteorological constraints, a new typology for quinoa could separate eight typologies and wild relatives.

      Through this high agrobiodiversity and wide ecology, the adaptation of Andean quinoa offers great potential to bring into production underutilized areas such as dry and salty fields. It confers the potential for these agricultural systems to adapt