Materials for Biomedical Engineering. Mohamed N. Rahaman

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Название Materials for Biomedical Engineering
Автор произведения Mohamed N. Rahaman
Жанр Химия
Серия
Издательство Химия
Год выпуска 0
isbn 9781119551096



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of adsorbed ions and molecules

       Development of a surface electrostatic charge

       Mobility of side groups attached to polymer chains and their structural reorientation at the surface.

      Apart from the noble metals such as gold, silver, and platinum, the surface of metals, exposed even for a short time to an environment containing oxygen (such as air) is typically composed of a thin layer of a metal oxide. This is due to the reaction of the surface atoms with chemically adsorbed oxygen molecules, which can be written

      (5.11)equation

      The driving force for the reaction is the free energy change associated with formation of the metal oxide but the growth of the oxide layer is controlled by kinetic factors such as time and temperature. Similarly, ceramics such as silicon nitride (Si3N4) that are not composed of a metal oxide, often referred to as nonoxide ceramics, commonly develop a thin oxide surface layer when exposed to an environment containing oxygen.

Schematic illustration of the formation of an oxide surface layer on a clean metal exposed to an oxidizing atmosphere and a hydroxylated surface upon exposure to a moist atmosphere.

      Depending on the nature of the surrounding medium, the polymer chains at the surface of some polymers can undergo structural reorientation of their side groups, which results in a change in surface composition. The thermodynamic driving force for this structural change is the reduction in energy due to a lower interfacial energy between the polymer surface and the medium. However, the rate at which this structural reorientation can occur is a kinetic problem, related to factors such as the flexibility of the chain backbone and the nature of the side groups. Typically, structural reorientation of the side groups occurs faster for polymers composed of single bonds between carbon atoms in the chain backbone and flexible, less bulky side groups. Surface structural reorientation in different polymers has been estimated to take place in time scales ranging from minutes to months.

Schematic illustration of a model for reorientation of polymer surface functional groups during dehydration of polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate (PHEMA) hydrogels. The proportion of methyl and hydroxyethyl groups depicted at the polymer surface reflects qualitative changes in surface composition.

      Source: From Chen et al. (1999) / with permission of American Chemical Society.

      5.3.1 Characterization of Surface Chemistry

Measurement parameter Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)
Incident particle Electrons (1–20 keV) X‐rays (1.254 keV; 1.487 keV) Ions (He+, Ne+, Ar+) (100 eV–30 keV)
Emitted particle Auger electrons (20–2000 eV) Photoelectrons (20–2000 eV) Sputtered ions (~10 eV)
Element range >Li (Z = 3) >Li (Z = 3) >H (Z = 1)
Detection limit 10−3 10−3 10−6–10−9
Depth of analysis 2 nm 2 nm 1 nm
Lateral resolution >20 nm >150 μm 50 nm–10 mm