EEG Signal Processing and Machine Learning. Saeid Sanei

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Название EEG Signal Processing and Machine Learning
Автор произведения Saeid Sanei
Жанр Программы
Серия
Издательство Программы
Год выпуска 0
isbn 9781119386933



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and fixed time non‐zero time‐lag synchronization, which may occur when there is a significant delay between the two neuronal population sites [29]. However, it does not provide any information on the directionality of the coupling between the two recording sites.

      Granger causality (also called as Wiener–Granger causality) [30] is another measure, which attempts to extract and quantify the directionality from EEGs. Granger causality is based on bivariate AR estimates of the data. In a multichannel environment this causality is calculated from pair‐wise combinations of electrodes. This method has been used to evaluate the directionality of the source movement from the local field potential in the visual system of cats [31].

      (4.85)equation

      where R(q) = E[x(n)xT (n + q)] is the covariance matrix of x(n), and the cross‐correlations of the signal and noise are zero since they are assumed uncorrelated. Similarly, the noise autocorrelation is zero for non‐zero shift since the noise samples are uncorrelated. The data segment is considered short enough for the signal to remain statistically stationary within that interval and long enough to enable accurate measurement of the prediction coefficients. Given the MVAR model coefficients, a multivariate spectrum can be achieved. Here it is assumed that the residual signal, v(n), is white noise. Therefore,

      (4.86)equation

      where

      (4.88)equation

      which represents the model spectrum of the signals or the transfer matrix of the MVAR system. The DTF or causal relationship between channel i and channel j can be defined directly from the transform coefficients [32] given by:

      (4.89)equation

      Electrode i is causal to j at frequency f if:

      (4.90)equation

      As an important feature in classification of left and right‐finger movements, or tracking the mental task related sources, SDTF plays an important role. Some results of using SDTF for detection and classification of finger movement have been given in the context of BCI.

      The EEG signals are subject to noise and artefacts. Electrocardiograms (ECGs), electro‐oculograms (EOG) or eye blinks affect the EEG signals. Any multimodal recording such as EEG–functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) significantly disturbs the EEG signals because of both magnetic fields and the change in the blood oxygen level and sensitivity of oxygen molecule to the magnetic field (balisto‐cardiogram). Artefact removal from the EEGs will be explained in the related chapters. The noise in the EEGs, however, may be estimated and mitigated using adaptive and non‐adaptive filtering techniques.

      The EEG signals contain neuronal information below 100 Hz (in many applications the information lies below 30 Hz). Any frequency component above these frequencies can be simply removed by using lowpass filters. In the cases where the EEG data acquisition system is unable to cancel out the 50 Hz line frequency (due to a fault in grounding or imperfect balancing of the inputs to the differential amplifiers associated with the EEG system) a notch filter is used to remove it.

      The nonlinearities in the recording system related to the frequency response of the amplifiers, if known, are compensated by using equalizing filters. However, the characteristics of the internal and external noises affecting the EEG signals are often unknown. The noise may be characterized if the signal and noise subspaces can be accurately separated. Using principal component analysis (PCA) or independent component analysis (ICA) we are able to decompose the multichannel EEG observations to their constituent components such as the neural activities and noise. Combining these two together, the estimated noise components can be extracted, characterized, and separated from the actual EEGs. These concepts are explained in the following sections and their applications to the artefact and noise removal will be brought in the later chapters.

Schematic illustration of an adaptive noise canceller.