Historical Dictionary of Jazz. John S. Davis

would serve as highly influential jazz landmarks and would be imitated for decades to come.

      By 1930, Armstrong was immensely popular and began actively touring the United States. Rarely did Armstrong ever bring a band with him and instead performed as a featured soloist with different house bands. Armstrong toured Europe for the first time in 1932. He continued this trend of touring alone into the 1940s. In 1938, Armstrong and Hardin divorced, and Armstrong quickly remarried. As bebop came into prominence in the 1940s, Armstrong’s popularity took a hit after having been one of the most dominant artists for the previous decade. Armstrong responded by forming the All Stars big band, which was quickly winnowed down to a smaller group in 1947. Members of this group changed over the next decade but included trombonists Jack Teagarden and Trummy Young, clarinetists Barney Bigard and Edmond Hall, and pianist Earl Hines.

      Armstrong remained a very popular artist and celebrity well into the 1960s but saw his popularity diminish among jazz musicians and was criticized for never changing or adapting his style. In addition to playing his trumpet, he was a very popular vocalist (recording “Hello Dolly” in 1964, a number-one pop hit) and was a major contributor to the development of vocal improvisation. He died in 1971 and is considered to be one of the greatest jazz figures ever. See also ARMSTRONG, LILLIAN HARDIN “LIL” (1898–1971); EARLY JAZZ; SHAW, ARVELL (1923–2002).

      ARRANGEMENT

      An arrangement is an interpretation of a previously written composition, be it a standard, a jazz tune, or other melody. While the melody is typically worked into the arrangement, there is much artistic freedom in terms of how the arranger chooses to deal with tempo, form, orchestration, rhythm, and harmony (I). Although arrangements for large groups, namely big bands, are mostly written out, some small groups may come up with an improvisational arrangement of a tune on the spot. Jazz arranging first emerged in the late 1920s with swing bands such as the one of band- leader Fletcher Henderson, who employed arrangements regularly in his band’s performances. A prominent arranger of the swing era was Duke Ellington, who, using the Henderson band as a model, took his arrangements and compositions to a new level by experimenting with new combinations of tones, colors, and instrument pairings. Arrangers were oftentimes hired by famous bandleaders in the swing era to create unique orchestrations for their groups, as Billy Strayhorn and Sammy Nestico did for the Duke Ellington Orchestra and the Count Basie Orchestra, respectively. See also AKIYOSHI, TOSHIKO (1929–); BROOKMEYER, ROBERT “BOB” (1929–2011); DAMERON, TADLEY EWING “TADD” (1917–1965); EVANS, GIL (1912–1988); JONES, THADDEUS JOSEPH “THAD” (1923–1986); NELSON, OLIVER (1932–1975); SCHNEIDER, MARIA (1960–).

      ART ENSEMBLE OF CHICAGO

      Formed in 1968 in the city of Chicago from the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM), the Art Ensemble of Chicago originally involved saxophonists Roscoe Mitchell and Joseph Jarman, trumpet player Lester Bowie, bassist Malachi Favors, and, later, drummer Famodou Don Moye. Despite being at the forefront of free jazz and blending all sorts of influences from bop to rock to blues to traditional jazz and ethnic music, the ensemble always surrounded their playing with composition, along with an exploration of new sound structures and timbre combinations. With a firm but not necessarily explicitly detailed structure of composition, the ensemble explored new sounds and frequently improvised collectively, evolving their improvisations throughout the performance. Theatrical elements such as recitation of poetry and multimedia formats were aspects of the ensemble’s identity, but what is very noteworthy about the group was their refined ensemble playing in which each individual added a great deal to the group as a whole.

      In 1969, the ensemble moved to Paris and from there became one of the preeminent avant-garde ensembles, experiencing a considerable amount of success. During that time, they made such recordings as Reese and the Smooth Ones and People in Sorrow. In 1972, the ensemble moved back to Chicago and from there continued to grow. Despite the passing on of several musicians throughout the 1980s and 1990s, including Lester Bowie in 1999, the group remained together, adding trumpeter Corey Wilkes and bassist Jaribu Shahid to the ensemble in 2004. In 2019, the group released the album We Are on the Edge: A 50th Anniversary Celebration (Pi Recordings).

      ARTISTS HOUSE

      A record label founded in 1977 by John Snyder with the intention of delivering top-notch recordings and detailed liner notes. The record label was only in existence a short time (from 1977 to 1979) and put out about 10 albums, including James “Blood” Ulmer’s first album, Tales of Captain Black (1978). Other artists affiliated with the label included Ornette Coleman, Paul Desmond, Charlie Haden, and Thad Jones. After the record label dissolved in 1979, many of the sessions that had been recorded were rereleased in the 1980s under different labels.

      ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF CREATIVE MUSICIANS INC. (AACM)ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF CREATIVE MUSICIANS

      Regarded as one of the most successful musicians’ cooperatives, the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians was formed in 1965 by composer and multi-instrumentalist Muhal Richard Abrams and the musicians associated with him. The group was based on a commitment to support forward-thinking and innovative musicians and to provide performance and composition opportunities for the musician members. Featuring advocates for new music and talented musicians alike, including saxophonist Anthony Braxton, trumpet player Leo Smith, and violinist Leroy Jenkins, the organization emphasized the sharing of creative exploration and expression.

      The Art Ensemble of Chicago, a similar forward-thinking group of jazz musicians, was formed in 1968 by musicians who were associated with the AACM. Other organizations, including the cooperative Black Artists’ Group (BAG) based in St. Louis and formed in the 1970s, were inspired by the model created by the rather successful AACM. The group presented public concerts in churches, local taverns, art galleries, high schools, and colleges in both big band and small-group settings featuring original and creative music by its members. In 1969, an educational program was added to the AACM for inner-city youth, and today the organization still remains very dedicated to jazz education. Supported by grants from the MacArthur Foundation and the National Endowment for the Arts, a charter by the State of Illinois, and an association with Columbia College, the AACM continues to thrive today in its commitment to and celebration of creative and, coined by the organization itself, “great Black music.” In 2015, a 50-year retrospective exhibition of art, music, and group-related artifacts, titled Free at First, was held at the DuSable Museum of African American History. See also FAVORS, MALACHI (1927–2004); LEWIS, GEORGE (1952–); MITCHELL, ROSCOE (1940–); SMITH, WADADA LEO ( 1941–).

      ASSUNTO

      A family of Dixieland musicians made famous by the band they formed named the Dukes of Dixieland. Jacob “Papa Jac” Assunto (b. Lake Charles, Louisiana, 1 November 1905; d. New Orleans, 5 January 1985) was a Jennings, Louisiana–based trombonist and banjo player who relocated to New Orleans in the 1920s to pursue more performance opportunities and education. In 1929 he had his first son, Freddie Assunto (b. Jennings, Louisiana, 3 December 1929; d. Las Vegas, Nevada, 21 April 1966), who also took up trombone and received instruction from Papa Jac. Frank Assunto (b. New Orleans, Louisiana, 29 January 1932; d. New Orleans, 25 February 1974), Papa Jac’s second son, signaled a change in Papa Jac’s life as he decided to no longer pursue an active performance career. Frank decided to learn trumpet and at the age of 13 started a Dixieland band with Freddie. This band was officially named the Dukes of Dixieland in 1949, and the brothers toured with the band across the United States and Europe. In 1955 the group extended an invitation to their father to