The New Art and Science of Teaching Reading. Robert J. Marzano

predictable progression, unconstrained skills develop more organically. Again, Duke and Carlisle (2011) explain:

      While it is clear that comprehension develops, it is also clear that there is not a single path to comprehension development. This is largely because there are myriad reader factors, text factors, and context factors that all impact reading comprehension…. Comprehension is affected by individual differences in students’ capabilities and experiences as they interact with the quality of the opportunities they have at home and school to develop language and literacy…. There is no single set of stages or linear trajectory on which readers can be placed. (p. 215)

      Vocabulary functions similarly. For example, it would be impossible to articulate a progression of words that all students learn in a fixed order (or even phases of word learning that students advance through). Therefore, in this section, rather than presenting developmental progressions, we first define vocabulary and comprehension and then present research and instructional considerations for both areas.

       Vocabulary

      As we explained previously, vocabulary knowledge is a critical element of reading. A student’s ability to use phonological recoding to read an unfamiliar word hinges on whether the unfamiliar word is in his or her oral vocabulary. As the National Reading Panel (NICHD, 2000) states:

      Benefits in understanding text by applying letter-sound correspondences to printed material come about only if the target word is in the learner’s oral vocabulary. When the word is not in the learner’s oral vocabulary, it will not be understood when it occurs in print. (chapter 4, p. 3)

      Tunmer and Nicholson (2011) add:

      Children with poorly developed vocabulary knowledge will have trouble identifying and assigning appropriate meanings to unknown printed words, especially partially decoded or irregularly spelled words, if the corresponding spoken words are not in their listening vocabulary (Ricketts, Nation, & Bishop, 2007). This in turn will limit the development of their phonological recoding skills, as additional spelling-sound relationships can be induced from words that have been correctly identified. (p. 421)

      As we discussed, instruction in tier one vocabulary terms is foundational and critical for students (usually English learners) who do not know such terms; tier one vocabulary instruction should occur immediately and intensively as soon as possible for these learners. However, all students (including those receiving instruction for tier one terms) need direct instruction in terms from tiers two and three. Terms in both tiers occur infrequently in print; thus, students are unlikely to learn their meanings through repeated exposure. Tier two terms are general and appear in all disciplines and content areas (analyze, inquire, rescind); tier three terms are specific to one discipline or content area (quadrilateral, federalism, valence, allegory).

      Once students have achieved automatic word recognition, their vocabularies appear to be the limiting factor in their comprehension. Andrew Biemiller (2005, 2012; Biemiller & Slonim, 2001) finds that after third grade, most students could decode 25 to 30 percent more words than they could understand: “From third grade on, the main limiting factor for the majority of children is vocabulary, not reading mechanics (i.e., decoding print into words)” (Biemiller, 2012, p. 34). Robert J. Marzano, Katie Rogers, and Julia A. Simms (2015) synthesize research to articulate the following five characteristics of effective vocabulary instruction.

      1. Presenting individual terms and their descriptions in rich contexts (Graves, 2000; NICHD, 2000; Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986): Teachers select terms to teach and provide context-rich descriptions of them (rather than dictionary definitions). These descriptions can include using the term in sentences, providing pictures associated with the term, and explaining synonyms and antonyms of the term.

      2. Asking students to generate information about terms (Anderson & Reder, 1979; Graves, 2000; Nagy, 2005; NICHD, 2000; Scott, Jamieson-Noel, & Asselin, 2003; Stahl & Clark, 1987; Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986; Vogel, 2003): Teachers prompt students to generate their own descriptions of terms. Such descriptions should involve both words and pictures.

      3. Using multimedia methods (words, pictures, animations, and so on) to introduce and practice terms (Mayer, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2002; NICHD, 2000; Neuman, Newman, & Dwyer, 2011; Sadoski & Paivio, 2001): Teachers strive to incorporate multisensory activities and experiences into vocabulary instruction. Engaging as many senses as possible when learning a term solidifies it more rigorously in memory.

      4. Asking students to relate new terms to words they already know (Anderson & Reder, 1979; Booth, 2009; Chi & Koeske, 1983; Entwisle, 1966; Glaser, 1984; Levelt, Roelofs, & Meyer, 1999; Scott et al., 2003; Stahl & Murray, 1994; Stahl & Nagy, 2006; Tinkham, 1997): Teachers help students create mental networks of concepts by pointing out how new words connect to previously learned words. As with multisensory activities, explicit connections between terms solidify them in memory.

      5. Providing multiple exposures to new terms and opportunities to use those terms in the classroom (Beck et al., 2002; Beck, Perfetti, & McKeown, 1982; Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001; Brophy & Good, 1986; Daniels, 1994, 1996; Dole, Sloan, & Trathen, 1995; Hoffman, 1991; Leung, 1992; McKeown, Beck, Omanson, & Pople, 1985; McKeown, Beck, & Sandora, 2012; NICHD, 2000; Pressley, Allington, Wharton-McDonald, Block, & Morrow, 2001; Rosenshine, 1986; Scott et al., 2003; Sénéchal, 1997; Snow et al., 1998; Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986; Wharton-McDonald, Pressley, & Hampston, 1998): Teachers review previously taught terms on a regular basis, asking students to discuss them, extend their understanding of them, and play games with them. Each subsequent exposure to a term solidifies it more firmly in memory.

      Marzano and colleagues (Marzano, 2004, 2010b; Marzano et al., 2015; Marzano & Pickering, 2005; Marzano & Simms, 2013) have designed a six-step process that incorporates each of these elements of effective vocabulary instruction.

      1. Provide a description, explanation, or example of the new term: State the new term, ask students what they already know about it, and provide information that communicates and clarifies its meaning.

      2. Ask students to restate the description, explanation, or example in their own words: Prompt students to think about how they might describe the new term to a friend or use the new term in their personal lives. Students should record their responses in a vocabulary notebook or academic journal.

       3. Ask students to construct a picture, symbol, or graphic representing the term or phrase: Students should create a visual representation for the term. This might be a sketch of the object a term refers to, a symbol for the term, an example of the term, a cartoon with a character using the term, or a graphic for the term.

      4. Engage students periodically in activities that help them add to their knowledge of previously taught terms: At various times over the next few days or weeks, students should identify similarities and differences between terms and examine the morphology of terms.

      5. Periodically ask students to discuss previously taught terms with one another: At various times over the next few days or weeks, students should talk to each other about terms they’ve learned and try to refine or revise their descriptions of terms (recorded during step 2) as a result of their discussion.

      6. Involve students periodically in games that allow them to play with previously taught terms: At various times over the next few days or weeks, students should play word games with terms they’ve learned.

       Comprehension

      The RAND Reading Study Group (2002) defines comprehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language” (p. 11). Duke and Carlisle (2011) elaborate:

      Meaning does not reside in the oral or written text, which Spiro (1980) calls but “a skeleton, a blueprint for the creation of meaning” (p. 245)…. The reader accesses the meaning of words in text, processes the syntax of clauses and sentences, relates