The New Art and Science of Teaching. Robert J. Marzano

category of feedback. Chapter 1 examines providing and communicating clear learning goals, and chapter 2 considers assessment.

      Chapters 3 through 6 address the overall category of content. Chapter 3 considers direct instruction lessons. Chapter 4 examines practicing and deepening lessons. Chapter 5 addresses implementing knowledge application lessons. Chapter 6 presents strategies that teachers should use in all three types of lessons.

      Chapters 7 through 10 address the overall category of context. Chapter 7 focuses on engagement. Chapter 8 examines implementing rules and procedures. Chapter 9 spotlights strategies for building relationships, and chapter 10 focuses on communicating high expectations with an emphasis on the reluctant learner.

      The final chapter of this book addresses change at the macro level. Specifically, it addresses eight recommended system-level changes that are logical consequences of The New Art and Science of Teaching framework.

      CHAPTER 1

      Providing and Communicating Clear Learning Goals

      Effective feedback begins with clearly defined and clearly communicated learning goals.

      The desired mental states and processes for clear learning goals are that:

      Students understand the progression of knowledge they are expected to master and where they are along that progression.

      The importance of achieving these mental states and processes in students is almost self-evident. If students understand what they are to learn during a given lesson or unit, they are better able to determine how well they are doing and what they need to improve.

      Note that this design area addresses concepts for which there are many misconceptions and diverse perspectives. Specifically, terms like proficiency scale, rubric, learning goal, learning objective, learning target, behavioral objective, and the like have different meanings. For a historical perspective on these terms, see Marzano and John S. Kendall (2007, 2008). I recommend that districts and schools operationally define these terms for themselves. As long as schools use the terms in an internally consistent manner, they will be on sound footing.

      The following elements are important to providing clear goals.

Element 1: Providing Scales and Rubrics

      Scales and rubrics are necessary if students are to understand the progression of knowledge they are expected to learn. The terms scales and rubrics are frequently interchangeable, but there are important distinctions. Rubrics tend to be specific to one task. For example, a teacher might design a rubric to examine student performance on a specific writing prompt like “Describe your favorite animal and what makes the animal special.” A scale is more general and describes a progression of knowledge or skill. For example, a scale might describe the progression of knowledge leading up to a clear understanding of the concept of buoyancy or the progression of knowledge leading up to an ability to convert fractions into decimals. Although rubrics have their place in the classroom, The New Art and Science of Teaching focuses on the use of proficiency scales, especially for academic content. Figure 1.1 (page 12) provides a sample scale.

       Figure 1.1: Sample scale for generating claims, evidence, and reasoning at grade 8.

      Figure 1.1 is a scale for the topic of generating claims, evidence, and reasoning at grade 8. While there are many ways to create scales and rubrics, I recommend the format in figure 1.1. It has five levels of proficiency, ranging from 0.0 to 4.0 with half-point scores. However, there are only three levels of explicit content at scores 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0. Score 3.0 is the desired level of proficiency students are to meet. Score 2.0 content is that which is foundational to score 3.0 content and is directly taught. Score 4.0 involves inferences and applications that go beyond score 3.0 content. Score 1.0 indicates partial success with help; score 0.0 indicates no success even with help. The half-point scores show the partial success necessary to achieve each score. (For a detailed discussion of proficiency scales, see Marzano, 2006, 2009a, 2010b.)

      There are a variety of specific strategies that make the use of scales effective and efficient. These appear in table 1.1 along with brief descriptions.

Table 1.1: Strategies for Providing Scales and Rubrics

Strategy	Description
Clearly articulating learning goals	The teacher clarifies learning goals that state what students will know or be able to do at the end of a unit or set of lessons.
Creating scales or rubrics for learning goals	Learning goals are much more useful when embedded in a proficiency scale (also referred to as a performance scale). Teachers do this by articulating a learning target for score 3.0, a simpler learning goal for score 2.0, and a more complex learning goal for score 4.0.
Implementing routines for using targets and scales	The teacher uses routines to encourage students’ attentiveness to learning targets and proficiency scales. A routine could be as simple as reviewing a scale or learning target at the beginning of each class, or it could be more complex and require students to explain components of the target or scale.
Using teacher-created targets and scales	After designing scales with embedded learning targets, the teacher uses them as the basis for instruction. For example, at the beginning of the set of lessons focused on a particular scale, the teacher might spend a class period or two on each of the score 2.0 targets.
Creating student-friendly scales	The teacher asks students to translate scales into student-friendly language. After the teacher explains the target, as well as the simpler and more complex learning goals to students, students work in small groups to create their own wording for the 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 learning goals.
Identifying individual student learning goals	The teacher asks students to identify a personal learning goal that interests them and that relates to the teacher-identified learning goals. Students record their personal learning goals.

      Source: Adapted from Marzano Research, 2016ee.

      Some of the strategies in table 1.1 focus