The Handy American History Answer Book. David L. Hudson

and served as a major-general under George Washington’s Continental Army. He participated in numerous battles in the Revolutionary War, including the Battle of Brandywine, the Battle of Barren Hill, and the Battle of Monmouth. He suffered alongside many of Washington’s troops during Valley Forge. For his efforts, the Continental Congress praised him officially for his “gallantry, skill and prudence.”

      In February 1779, he returned to France. He named his son after George Washington. He returned to America in 1780, serving at the Battles of Green Spring and York-town. When he returned to France in 1781, he was honored as a hero. He worked with Thomas Jefferson to set up trade agreements between the United States and France. He survived some difficult moments during the French Revolution. Many years later, in 1824 and 1825, he returned to the United States at the invitation of President James Monroe (1758–1831) as an honored guest and a symbol of the American Revolution.

THE WAR CONCLUDES

      Why did General Benedict Arnold betray the United States?

      Benedict Arnold (1741–1801) was an American general who fought for the colonists in the Continental Army but then defected to the British. In the early stages of the Revolutionary War, he proved himself to be a brave leader, helping to capture Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and contributing to the success at Saratoga. However, Arnold was a spendthrift, finding himself in substantial debt. He also resented the fact that a number of officers of lower rank had been promoted ahead of him. After being placed in command of West Point in 1780, he decided to become a turncoat. Talking with the British in secret, he asked for money and a prominent role in the British Army; in return, he would turn over the fort at West Point to the British. But the plot was discovered, forcing Arnold to flee to the other side. He was put in command of British troops, fighting in Virginia and Connecticut against his former comrades. After the war, he lived in London, England, in semi-obscurity.

      General Benedict Arnold’s name has become synonymous with “traitor” in the American lexicon, but before 1780 he was actually considered a brave and heroic military leader.

      What battle effectively ended the Revolutionary War?

      The Battle of Yorktown resulted in British commander Lord Cornwallis surrendering to General George Washington and other colonial forces. The battle took place in September and October 1781 as American army and naval forces surrounded Cornwallis’s troops. Colonial forces captured more than seven thousand British troops during the conflict. With the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, British officials realized they needed to end the costly war.

      What song did the British drummers play after the surrender at Yorktown?

      British drummers played the song “The World Turned Upside Down” as they headed with their American captors. Many of the British probably believed the lyrics of the song had come true.

      What treaties ended the Revolutionary War?

      The Peace of Paris officially ended the conflict between the British and American colonies. In September 1783, representatives of King George and American leaders met in Paris and signed the Treaty of Paris. Other treaties were needed to end the entire conflict, as the war also involved other world powers—including France and Spain. Under the agreements, Britain recognized the independence of the American colonies. Furthermore, Britain agreed that Florida would go to Spain, and Senegal would fall under the control of France. Diplomatic leaders signed the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783. The Second Continental Congress ratified the treaty on January 14, 1784.

      Who are considered the Founding Fathers of the United States?

      The term is used to refer to a number of American statesmen who were influential during the revolutionary period of the late 1700s. Though definitions vary, most include the authors of the Declaration of Independence and the signers of the U.S. Constitution among the nation’s Founding Fathers.

      Of the fifty-six members of the Continental Congress who signed the Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776), the most well-known are John Adams (1735–1826) and Samuel Adams (1722–1803) of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) of Pennsylvania, John Hancock (1737–1793) of Massachusetts, and Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) of Virginia.

      The thirty-nine men who signed the U.S. Constitution on September 17, 1787, included notable figures such as George Washington (1732–1799), who would go on, of course, to become the first president of the United States; Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804), who, as a former military aide to George Washington, went on to become the first U.S. secretary of the treasury; and James Madison (1751–1836), who is called the “Father of the Constitution” for his role as negotiator and recorder of debates between the delegates. At age eighty-one, Benjamin Franklin was the oldest signer of the Constitution and was among the six statesmen who could claim the distinction of signing both it and the Declaration of Independence; the others were George Clymer (1739–1813), Robert Morris (1734–1806), George Read (1733–1798), Roger Sherman (1721–1793), and James Wilson (1742–1798).

      Patriots and politicians conspicuous by their absence from the Constitutional Convention of 1787 were John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, who were performing other government duties at the time, and would each go on to become U.S. president; Samuel Adams and John Jay (1745–1829), who were not appointed as state delegates but who continued in public life, holding various federal and state government offices (including governor of their states); and Patrick Henry (1736–1799), who saw no need to go beyond the Articles of Confederation (1777) to grant more power to the central government. Henry’s view on this issue foreshadows the discontent that crested nearly one hundred years later, when twelve southern states (including Virginia) seceded from the Union, causing the Civil War (1861–1865) to break out.

      Adams, Franklin, Hancock, Jefferson, Washington, Hamilton, Madison, Jay, and Henry: These names come to mind when the words “Founding Fathers” are uttered. Each of them had a profound impact in the political life of the United States—even beyond their starring roles as patriots and leaders during the American Revolutionary era. However, it is important to note that in many texts and to many Americans, the term “Founding Fathers “refers only to the men who drafted the U.S. Constitution since that document—more than two hundred years after its signing—continues to provide the solid foundation for American democratic government.

THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

      What was the Articles of Confederation?

      The Articles of Confederation was the initial constitution created by the original thirteen states of the fledgling United States of America. Created in 1777 by the Continental Congress, the Articles were not ratified until 1781. The Articles created a legislative branch—a Congress—that had many powers, including the power to wage war, deal with foreign nations, and borrow money.

      But the Articles created a weak central government. The central feature of the Articles of Confederation was that “each state retains its sovereignty, independence, and freedom.” It created no judicial or executive branches. It allowed individual states often to prevent action by Congress. On many important matters, nine of thirteen states had to approve a matter before it could become law or approved policy. In sum, the Articles of Confederation created a relatively weak central government that was not equipped to deal with intrastate rivalries and conflicts.

      Which states were the original thirteen?

      In order of admission, they are:

      1. Delaware

      2. Pennsylvania

      3. New Jersey

      4. Georgia

      5. Connecticut