The Handy American History Answer Book. David L. Hudson

ventured throughout the Southeast before he caught fever and died along the banks of the Mississippi River.

      Having been part of a brutal expedition that crushed the Inca Empire (in present-day Peru), in 1536 de Soto returned to Spain a hero. But he sought to return to the New World and got his wish when King Charles I (1500–1558) appointed him governor of Cuba and authorized him to conquer and colonize the region that is now the southeastern United States.

      Arriving in Florida in the winter of 1539, de Soto and an army of about six hundred men headed north during the following spring and summer. In search of gold and silver, they traveled through present-day Georgia, North and South Carolina, and the Great Smoky Mountains, and into Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. After defeating the Choctaw leader Tuscaloosa in October 1540 in south-central Alabama, the Spaniards headed north and west into Mississippi. They crossed the Mississippi River on May 21, 1540, and de Soto died later that same day. Since he had shown no mercy in his conquests of the native peoples, de Soto’s troops sunk his body in the river so it would not be discovered and desecrated by the Indians. Then his army continued on without him; under the direction of Luis de Moscoso, they reached Mexico in 1541.

      Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto was the first European to see the Mississippi River, which he discovered in 1541, as portrayed in this 1853 painting by William Henry Powell.

       Did the Europeans introduce anything besides disease to the Americas?

      The European explorers brought with them many things that were previously unknown in the Americas. When Christopher Columbus landed at Hispaniola in 1492, he carried with him horses and cattle. These were the first seen in the Western Hemisphere; the American Indians had no beasts of burden prior to the Europeans’ arrival. In subsequent trips, Europeans introduced horses and livestock (including cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, and chickens) throughout South and North America. They later carried plants from Europe and the East back to the Americas, where they took hold. These included rice, sugar, indigo, wheat, and citrus fruits—all of which became established in the Western Hemisphere and became important crops during colonial times. With the exception of indigo (which was used as a fabric dye), these nonindigenous crops remain important to the countries of North and South America.

      What was the claim to fame of Balboa?

      Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475–1519) was a Spanish explorer best known for laying claim as the first European to lead an expedition to see the Pacific Ocean. He set sail for the New World, eventually landing in modern-day Colombia. He established the first colonial settlement established by the conquistadors in mainland America at Santa Maria la Antigua del Darren. Balboa became governor of the area. He also crossed the Isthmus of Panama and “discovered” the South Sea.

      Were the Spaniards the first Europeans to reach North America after the Vikings?

      No, that distinction goes to explorer John Cabot (c. 1451–1498), who in 1497 sailed westward from Bristol, England, in search of a trade route to the East. Cabot’s story began in 1493, when Columbus returned to Spain from his New World voyage, claiming to have reached Asia. From the accounts of the trip, Cabot, who was himself a navigator, believed it was unlikely Columbus had traveled that far. He did, however, believe it was possible (as did subsequent explorers) to find a route—a northwest passage—that ran north of the landmass Columbus had discovered and by which Asia could be reached. In 1495 the Italian Cabot—born Giovanni Caboto—took his family to England, and in March 1496, appealed to King Henry VII (1457–1509) for his endorsement to pursue the plan. For his part, King Henry, well aware of the claims made by the Spanish and Portuguese who had sponsored their own explorations, was eager to find new lands to rule. Accordingly, he granted a patent authorizing Cabot’s expedition.

      Later that year, Cabot set sail, but problems aboard the ship and foul weather forced him to turn back. On May 20, 1497, he sailed again, in a small ship christened “Matthew.” The crew of twenty included Cabot’s son, Sebastian. On June 24, they sighted land, and Cabot went ashore. While he saw signs of human habitation, he encountered no one. From reports of the trip, scholars believe Cabot reached the coasts of present-day Maine, Nova Scotia, and probably Newfoundland. He then sailed home, returning to England on August 6, 1497. He reported to the king six days later and was given both a reward and authorization for a more sizeable expedition, undertaken in May 1498. Cabot set sail with five ships in his command, but the expedition was not heard from again.

COLONIAL AMERICA

      What were the Spanish holdings in the New World?

      New Spain comprised many of the Spanish possessions in the New World during the colonial period. At its height, New Spain included what are today the southwestern United States; all of Mexico; Central America to the Isthmus of Panama; Florida; much of the West Indies (islands in the Caribbean); and the Philippines (in the Pacific Ocean). The viceroyalty (province governed by a representative of the monarch) was governed from the capital at Mexico City beginning in 1535. In 1821, a Mexican rebellion ended Spanish rule there, and the colonial empire of New Spain dissolved. By 1898, after Spain lost the Spanish–American War, Spain had ceded all its possessions in North America. Its last holdings were the islands of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

      During the colonial period, Spain also claimed other territories in the New World—in northern and western South America. Most of these holdings fell under the viceroyalty of Peru, which was administered separately from the viceroyalty of New Spain. These possessions were also lost by Spain by the end of the 1800s.

      What were the French holdings in the New World?

      The French possessions in North America, called New France, consisted of the colonies of Canada, Acadia, and Louisiana. The first land claims were made in 1534 by French explorer Jacques Cartier (1491–1557) as he sailed the St. Lawrence River in eastern Canada. In 1604, Sieur de Monts (Pierre du Gua; c. 1568–c. 1630) established a settlement at Acadia (in present-day Nova Scotia, Canada), and French claims later extended the region to include what are today the province of New Brunswick, Canada, and the eastern part of Maine. After founding Quebec in 1608, explorer Samuel de Champlain (c. 1567–1635) penetrated the interior (present-day Ontario) as far as Georgian Bay on Lake Huron, extending French land claims westward.

      In 1672, French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet (1645–1700) and French missionary Jacques Marquette (1637–1675) became the first Europeans to discover the upper part of the Mississippi River. Ten years later, French explorer Sieur de La Salle (1643–1687) followed the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, claiming the river valley for France and naming it Louisiana. While the French expanded their North American claims, the majority of French settlers lived in Canada. France lost Canada to Great Britain in the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). Louisiana changed hands numerous times before it was finally sold to the United States in 1803 as part of the Louisiana Purchase; it was France’s last claim on the North American mainland. French culture and influence in these areas remains prevalent today.

      In 1635, the French also claimed the West Indies islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe (and its small surrounding islands, including Saint Barthélemy). In 1946, the French government changed the status of these islands from colonies to “overseas departments.”

      Who was the proprietor of French-owned Louisiana in the early eighteenth century?

      Antoine Crozat (1655–1738) was a wealthy French businessman (merchant) who effectively ruled French-owned Louisiana in the early eighteenth century. In 1712, French King Louis XIV gave Crozat a trade monopoly in the Louisiana territory. The monopoly lasted until 1717.

      What was the “Lost Colony”?

      It was the second English colony established in America. Set up in 1587 on Roanoke Island, off the coast of North Carolina, by 1590 it disappeared without a trace. Theories surround the disappearance, though it is not known for certain what happened. Some speculate the colonists fell victim to disease. Others have posited that perhaps some hostile Indians killed the colonists.